Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-ph5wq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-29T04:36:23.815Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Section 4 - Therapeutic Strategies and Neurorehabilitation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2019

Michael Brainin
Affiliation:
Donau-Universität Krems, Austria
Wolf-Dieter Heiss
Affiliation:
Universität zu Köln
Get access
Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Stroke Unit Trialists’ Collaboration. Organised inpatient (stroke unit) care for stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 4: CD000197.Google Scholar
Kjellström, T, Norrving, B, Shatchkute, A. Helsingborg Declaration 2006 on European stroke strategies. Cerebrovasc Dis 2007; 23: 231–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terént, A, Asplund, K, Farahmand, B, et al. Stroke unit care revisited: who benefits the most? A cohort study of 105,043 patients in Riks-Stroke, the Swedish Stroke Register. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2009; 80: 881–7.Google Scholar
Ringelstein, EB, Chamorro, A, Kaste, M, et al. European Stroke Organisation recommendations to establish a stroke unit and stroke center. Stroke 2013; 44: 828–40.Google Scholar
European Stroke Organisation (ESO) Executive Committee, ESO Writing Committee. Guidelines for management of ischaemic stroke and transient ischaemic attack 2008. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008; 25: 457507.Google Scholar
Berglund, A, Svensson, L, Sjöstrand, C, et al. Higher prehospital priority level of stroke improves thrombolysis frequency and time to stroke unit: the Hyper Acute STroke Alarm (HASTA) study. Stroke 2012; 43: 2666–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldereschi, M, Piccardi, B, Di Carlo, A, et al. Relevance of prehospital stroke code activation for acute treatment measures in stroke care: a review. Cerebrovasc Dis 2012; 34: 182–90.Google Scholar
El Khoury, R, Jung, R, Nanda, A, et al. Overview of key factors in improving access to acute stroke care. Neurology 2012; 79: S26–34.Google Scholar
Meretoja, A, Kaste, M. Pre- and in-hospital intersection of stroke care. Ann NY Acad Sci 2012; 1268: 145–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kothari, R, Barsan, W, Brott, T, Broderick, J, Ashbrock, S. Frequency and accuracy of prehospital diagnosis of acute stroke. Stroke 1995; 26: 937–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kothari, RU, Pancioli, A, Liu, T, Brott, T, Broderick, J. Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale: reproducibility and validity. Ann Emerg Med 1999; 33: 373–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nor, AM, McAllister, C, Louw, SJ, et al. Agreement between ambulance paramedic- and physician-recorded neurological signs with Face Arm Speech Test (FAST) in acute stroke patients. Stroke 2004; 35: 1355–9.Google Scholar
Kidwell, CS, Starkman, S, Eckstein, M, Weems, K, Saver, JL. Identifying stroke in the field. Prospective validation of the Los Angeles prehospital stroke screen (LAPSS). Stroke 2000; 31: 71–6.Google Scholar
Bray, JE, Martin, J, Cooper, G, et al. Paramedic identification of stroke: community validation of the Melbourne ambulance stroke screen. Cerebrovasc Dis 2005; 20: 2833.Google Scholar
McTaggart, RA, Yaghi, S, Cutting, SM, et al. Association of a primary stroke center protocol for suspected stroke by large-vessel occlusion with efficiency of care and patient outcomes. JAMA Neurol 2017; 74: 793800.Google Scholar
Lindsberg, PJ, Häppölä, O, Kallela, M, et al. Door to thrombolysis: ER reorganization and reduced delays to acute stroke treatment. Neurology 2006; 67: 334–6.Google Scholar
Meretoja, A, Strbian, D, Mustanoja, S, et al. Reducing in-hospital delay to 20 minutes in stroke thrombolysis. Neurology 2012; 79: 306–13.Google Scholar
Audebert, HJ, Schenkel, J, Heuschmann, PU, et al. Effects of the implementation of a telemedical stroke network: the Telemedic Pilot Project for Integrative Stroke Care (TEMPiS) in Bavaria, Germany. Lancet Neurol 2006; 5: 742–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hess, DC, Wang, S, Gross, H, et al. Telestroke: extending stroke expertise into underserved areas. Lancet Neurol 2006; 5: 275–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zaidi, SF, Jumma, MA, Urra, XN, et al. Telestroke-guided intravenous tissue-type plasminogen activator treatment achieves a similar clinical outcome as thrombolysis at a comprehensive stroke center. Stroke 2011; 42: 3291–3.Google Scholar
Weber, JE, Ebinger, M, Rozanski, M, et al. Prehospital thrombolysis in acute stroke: results of the PHANTOM-S pilot study. Neurology 2013; 80: 163–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kunz, A, Ebinger, M, Geisler, F, et al. Functional outcomes of pre-hospital thrombolysis in a mobile stroke treatment unit compared with conventional care: an observational registry study. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15: 1035–43.Google Scholar
Leys, D, Ringelstein, EB, Kaste, M, Hacke, W, Executive Committee of the European Stroke Initiative. Facilities available in European hospitals treating stroke patients. Stroke 2007; 38: 2985–91.Google Scholar
European Stroke Initiative Writing Committee, Writing Committee for the EUSI Executive Committee, Steiner, T, et al. Recommendations for the management of intracranial haemorrhage – part I: spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006; 22: 294316.Google Scholar
Langhorne, P, Dennis, M. Stroke Units: An Evidence Based Approach. London: BMJ Books; 1999.Google Scholar
Urimubenshi, G, Langhorne, P, Cadilhac, DA, Kagwiza, JN, Wu, O. Association between patient outcomes and key performance indicators of stroke care quality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Stroke J 2017; 2: 287307.Google Scholar
Aboderin, I, Venables, G. Stroke management in Europe. Pan European Consensus Meeting on Stroke Management. J Intern Med 1996; 240: 173–80.Google ScholarPubMed
Walter, S, Kostopoulos, P, Haass, A, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of patients with stroke in a mobile stroke unit versus in hospital: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2012; 11: 397404.Google Scholar
De Castro, S, Papetti, F, Di Angelantonio, E, et al. Feasibility and clinical utility of transesophageal echocardiography in the acute phase of cerebral ischemia. Am J Cardiol 2010; 106: 1339–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vahedi, K, Hofmeijer, J, Juettler, E, et al. Early decompressive surgery in malignant infarction of the middle cerebral artery: a pooled analysis of three randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6: 215–22.Google Scholar

References

ESO Writing Committee, Guidelines for Management of Ischaemic Stroke and Transient Ischaemic Attack 2008. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008; 25(5): 457507.Google Scholar
Jauch, EC, Saver, JL, Adams, HP, Jr., et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2013; 44(3): 870947.Google Scholar
Powers, WJ, Derdeyn, CP, Biller, J, et al. AHA/ASA Focused Update of the 2013 Guidelines for the Early Management of Patients with Acute Ischemic Stroke Regarding Endovascular Treatment: A Guideline for Healthcare Professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2015; 46(10): 3020–35.Google Scholar
Torbey, MT, Bösel, J, Rhoney, DH, et al. Evidence-Based Guidelines for the Management of Large Hemispheric Infarction: A Statement for Health Care Professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society and the German Society for Neuro-Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine. Neurocrit Care 2015; 22(1): 146–64.Google Scholar
Wahlgren, N, Moreira, T, Michel, P, et al. Mechanical thrombectomy in acute ischemic stroke: consensus statement by ESO-Karolinska Stroke Update 2014/2015, supported by ESO, ESMINT, ESNR and EAN. Int J Stroke 2016; 11(1): 134–47.Google Scholar
Clark, WM, Wissman, S, Albers, GW, et al. Recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator (Alteplase) for ischemic stroke 3 to 5 hours after symptom onset. The ATLANTIS Study: a randomized controlled trial. Alteplase thrombolysis for acute noninterventional therapy in ischemic stroke. JAMA 1999; 282(21): 2019–26.Google Scholar
Hacke, W, Kaste, M, Fieschi, C, et al. Intravenous thrombolysis with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator for acute stroke. JAMA 1995; 274(13): 1017–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hacke, W, Kaste, M, Fieschi, C, et al. Randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial of thrombolytic therapy with intravenous alteplase in acute ischaemic stroke (ECASS II). Lancet 1998; 352(9136): 1245–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hacke, W, Kaste, M, Bluhmki, E, et al. Thrombolysis with alteplase 3 to 4.5 hours after acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2008; 359(13): 1317–29.Google Scholar
The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke rt-PA Stroke Study Group, Tissue plasminogen activator for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 1995; 333(24): 1581–7.Google Scholar
IST-3 collaborative group, Sandercock, P, Wardlaw, JM, et al. The benefits and harms of intravenous thrombolysis with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator within 6 h of acute ischaemic stroke (the third international stroke trial [IST-3]): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2012; 379(9834): 2352–63.Google Scholar
Hacke, W, Bluhmki, E, Steiner, T, et al. Dichotomized efficacy end points and global end-point analysis applied to the ECASS intention-to-treat data set. Stroke 1998; 29(10): 2073–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wahlgren, N, Ahmed, N, Davalos, A, et al. Thrombolysis with alteplase for acute ischaemic stroke in the Safe Implementation of Thrombolysis in Stroke-Monitoring Study (SITS-MOST): an observational study. Lancet 2007; 369(9558): 275–82.Google Scholar
Wahlgren, N, Ahmed, N, Davalos, A, et al. Thrombolysis with alteplase 3–4.5 h after acute ischaemic stroke (SITS-ISTR): an observational study. Lancet 2008; 372(9646): 1303–9.Google Scholar
Hacke, W, Donnan, G, Fieschi, C, et al. Association of outcome with early stroke treatment: pooled analysis of ATLANTIS, ECASS, and NINDS rt-PA stroke trials. Lancet 2004; 363(9411): 768–74.Google Scholar
Lees, KR, Bluhmki, E, von Kummer, R, et al. Time to treatment with intravenous alteplase and outcome in stroke: an updated pooled analysis of ECASS, ATLANTIS, NINDS, and EPITHET trials. Lancet 2010; 375(9727): 1695–703.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zinkstok, SM, Roos, YB, ARTIS investigators. Early administration of aspirin in patients treated with alteplase for acute ischaemic stroke: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2012; 380(9843): 731–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Audebert, HJ, Kukla, C, Clarmann von Claranau, S, et al. Telemedicine for safe and extended use of thrombolysis in stroke: the Telemedic Pilot Project for Integrative Stroke Care (TEMPiS) in Bavaria. Stroke 2005; 36(2): 287–91.Google Scholar
Furlan, AJ, Eyding, D, Albers, GW, et al. Dose Escalation of Desmoteplase for Acute Ischemic Stroke (DEDAS): evidence of safety and efficacy 3 to 9 hours after stroke onset. Stroke 2006; 37(5): 1227–31.Google Scholar
Hacke, W, Albers, G, Al-Rawi, Y, et al. The Desmoteplase in Acute Ischemic Stroke Trial (DIAS): a phase II MRI-based 9-hour window acute stroke thrombolysis trial with intravenous desmoteplase. Stroke 2005; 36(1): 6673.Google Scholar
Hacke, W, Furlan, AJ, Al-Rawi, Y, et al. Intravenous desmoteplase in patients with acute ischaemic stroke selected by MRI perfusion-diffusion weighted imaging or perfusion CT (DIAS-2): a prospective, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8(2): 141–50.Google Scholar
Albers, GW, von Kummer, R, Truelsen, T, et al. Safety and efficacy of desmoteplase given 3–9 h after ischaemic stroke in patients with occlusion or high-grade stenosis in major cerebral arteries (DIAS-3): a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet Neurol 2015; 14(6): 575–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parsons, M, Spratt, N, Bivard, A, et al. A randomized trial of tenecteplase versus alteplase for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2012; 366(12): 1099–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Logallo, N, Novotny, V, Assmus, J, et al. Tenecteplase versus alteplase for management of acute ischaemic stroke (NOR-TEST): a phase 3, randomised, open-label, blinded endpoint trial. Lancet Neurol 2017; 16(10): 781–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furlan, A, Higashida, R, Wechsler, L, et al. Intra-arterial prourokinase for acute ischemic stroke. The PROACT II study: a randomized controlled trial. Prolyse in acute cerebral thromboembolism. JAMA 1999; 282(21): 2003–11.Google Scholar
Emberson, J, Lees, KR, Lyden, P, et al. Effect of treatment delay, age, and stroke severity on the effects of intravenous thrombolysis with alteplase for acute ischaemic stroke: a meta-analysis of individual patient data from randomised trials. Lancet 2014; 384(9958): 1929–35.Google Scholar
Riedel, CH, Zimmermann, P, Jensen-Kondering, U, et al. The importance of size: successful recanalization by intravenous thrombolysis in acute anterior stroke depends on thrombus length. Stroke 2011; 42(6): 1775–7.Google Scholar
Rha, JH, Saver, JL. The impact of recanalization on ischemic stroke outcome: a meta-analysis. Stroke 2007; 38(3): 967–73.Google Scholar
Broderick, JP, Palesch, YY, Demchuk, AM, et al. Endovascular therapy after intravenous t-PA versus t-PA alone for stroke. N Engl J Med 2013; 368: 893903.Google Scholar
Ciccone, A, Valvassori, L, Nichelatti, M, et al. Endovascular treatment for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2013; 368(10): 904–13.Google Scholar
Kidwell, CS, Jahan, R, Gornbein, J, et al. A trial of imaging selection and endovascular treatment for ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2013; 368(10): 914–23.Google Scholar
Demchuk, AM, Goyal, M, Yeatts, SD, et al. Recanalization and clinical outcome of occlusion sites at baseline CT angiography in the Interventional Management of Stroke III trial. Radiology 2014; 273(1): 202–10.Google Scholar
Berkhemer, OA, Fransen, PS, Beumer, D, et al. A randomized trial of intraarterial treatment for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(1): 1120.Google Scholar
Goyal, M, Demchuk, AM, Menon, BK, et al. Randomized assessment of rapid endovascular treatment of ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(11): 1019–30.Google Scholar
Saver, JL, Goyal, M, Bonafe, A, et al. Stent-retriever thrombectomy after intravenous t-PA vs. t-PA alone in stroke. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(24): 2285–95.Google Scholar
Jovin, TG, Chamorro, A, Cobo, E, et al. Thrombectomy within 8 hours after symptom onset in ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(24): 2296–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, BC, Mitchell, PJ, Kleinig, TJ, et al. Endovascular therapy for ischemic stroke with perfusion-imaging selection. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(11): 1009–18.Google Scholar
Bracard, S, Ducrocq, X, Mas, JL, et al. Mechanical thrombectomy after intravenous alteplase versus alteplase alone after stroke (THRACE): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15(11): 1138–47.Google Scholar
Campbell, BC, Donnan, GA, Lees, KR, et al. Endovascular stent thrombectomy: the new standard of care for large vessel ischaemic stroke. Lancet Neurol 2015; 14(8): 846–54.Google Scholar
Goyal, M, Menon, BK, van Zwam, WH, et al. Endovascular thrombectomy after large-vessel ischaemic stroke: a meta-analysis of individual patient data from five randomised trials. Lancet 2016; 387(10029): 1723–31.Google Scholar
Church, EW, Gundersen, A, Glantz, MJ, et al. Number needed to treat for stroke thrombectomy based on a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2017; 156: 83–8.Google Scholar
Nogueira, RG, Jadhav, AP, Haussen, DC, et al. Thrombectomy 6 to 24 hours after stroke with a mismatch between deficit and infarct. N Engl J Med 2018; 378(1): 1121.Google Scholar
Straka, M, Albers, GW, Bammer, R. Real-time diffusion-perfusion mismatch analysis in acute stroke. J Magn Reson Imaging 2010; 32(5): 1024–37.Google Scholar
Abou-Chebl, A, Lin, R, Hussain, MS, et al. Conscious sedation versus general anesthesia during endovascular therapy for acute anterior circulation stroke: preliminary results from a retrospective, multicenter study. Stroke 2010; 41(6): 1175–9.Google Scholar
van den Berg, LA, Koelman, DL, Berkhemer, OA, et al. Type of anesthesia and differences in clinical outcome after intra-arterial treatment for ischemic stroke. Stroke 2015; 46(5): 1257–62.Google Scholar
Campbell, BCV, van Zwam, WH, Goyal, M, et al. Effect of general anaesthesia on functional outcome in patients with anterior circulation ischaemic stroke having endovascular thrombectomy versus standard care: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet Neurol 2018; 17(1): 4753.Google Scholar
Löwhagen Henden, P, Rentzos, A, Karlsson, JE, et al. General anesthesia versus conscious sedation for endovascular treatment of acute ischemic stroke: the AnStroke Trial (anesthesia during stroke). Stroke 2017; 48(6): 1601–7.Google Scholar
Antiplatelet Trialists' Coorperation. Collaborative overview of randomized trials of antiplatelet therapy, I: prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke by prolonged antiplatet therapy in various categories of patients. BMJ 1994; 308(6921): 81106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CAST-Collaborative-Group. CAST: randomised placebo-controlled trial of early aspirin use in 20000 patients with acute ischeaemic stroke. Lancet 1997; 349(June): 1641–9.Google Scholar
International-Stroke-Trial-Collaborative-Group. The International Stroke Trial (IST): a randomised trial of aspirin, subcutaneous heparin, both, or neither among 19435 patients with acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet 1997; 349(9065): 1569–81.Google Scholar
Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration. Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ 2002; 324(7329): 7186.Google Scholar
Geeganage, CM, Diener, HC, Algra, A, et al. Dual or mono antiplatelet therapy for patients with acute ischemic stroke or transient ischemic attack: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Stroke 2012; 43(4): 1058–66.Google Scholar
Wang, Y, Wang, Y, Zhao, X, et al. Clopidogrel with aspirin in acute minor stroke or transient ischemic attack. N Engl J Med 2013; 369(1): 1119.Google Scholar
Johnston, SC, Easton, JD, Farrant, M, et al. Platelet-oriented inhibition in new TIA and minor ischemic stroke (POINT) trial: rationale and design. Int J Stroke 2013; 8(6): 479–83.Google Scholar
Gubitz, G, Sandercock, P, Counsell, C. Anticoagulants for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; 3: CD000024.Google Scholar
Paciaroni, M, Agnelli, G, Micheli, S, et al. Efficacy and safety of anticoagulant treatment in acute cardioembolic stroke: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Stroke 2007; 38(2): 423–30.Google Scholar
Whiteley, WN, Adams, HP, Jr., Bath, PM, et al. Targeted use of heparin, heparinoids, or low-molecular-weight heparin to improve outcome after acute ischaemic stroke: an individual patient data meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol 2013; 12(6): 539–45.Google Scholar
O'Collins, VE, Macleod, MR, Donnan, GA, et al. 1,026 experimental treatments in acute stroke. Ann Neurol 2006; 59(3): 467–77.Google Scholar
Ginsberg, MD. Neuroprotection for ischemic stroke: past, present and future. Neuropharmacology 2008; 55(3): 363–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shuaib, A, Lees, KR, Lyden, P, et al. NXY-059 for the treatment of acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2007; 357(6): 562–71.Google Scholar
Wu, TC, Grotta, JC. Hypothermia for acute ischaemic stroke. Lancet Neurol 2013; 12(3): 275–84.Google Scholar
Zhai, WW, Sun, L, Yu, ZQ, et al. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy in experimental and clinical stroke. Med Gas Res 2016; 6(2): 111–18.Google Scholar
Shi, SH, Qi, ZF, Luo, YM, et al. Normobaric oxygen treatment in acute ischemic stroke: a clinical perspective. Med Gas Res 2016; 6(3): 147–53.Google ScholarPubMed
Vahedi, K, Hofmeijer, J, Juettler, E, et al. Early decompressive surgery in malignant infarction of the middle cerebral artery: a pooled analysis of three randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6(3): 215–22.Google Scholar
Jüttler, E, Unterberg, A, Woitzik, J, et al. Hemicraniectomy in older patients with extensive middle-cerebral-artery stroke. N Engl J Med 2014; 370(12): 1091–100.Google Scholar

References

Rha, JH, Saver, JL. The impact of recanalization on ischemic stroke outcome: a meta-analysis. Stroke 2007; 38(3): 967–73.Google Scholar
Mattle, HP, Arnold, M, Lindsberg, PJ, Schonewille, WJ, Schroth, G. Basilar artery occlusion. Lancet Neurol 2011; 10(11): 1002–14.Google Scholar
Riedel, CH, Zimmermann, P, Jensen-Kondering, U, et al. The importance of size: successful recanalization by intravenous thrombolysis in acute anterior stroke depends on thrombus length. Stroke 2011; 42(6): 1775–7.Google Scholar
Weisstanner, C, Gratz, PP, Schroth, G, et al. Thrombus imaging in acute stroke: correlation of thrombus length on susceptibility-weighted imaging with endovascular reperfusion success. Eur Radiol 2014; 24(8): 1735–41.Google Scholar
Shu, L, Riedel, C, Meyne, J, Jansen, O, Jensen-Kondering, U. Successful recanalization in acute basilar artery occlusion treated with endovascular therapy is independent of thrombus length. J Neurointerv Surg 2017; 9(11): 1047–52.Google Scholar
Goyal, M, Menon, BK, van Zwam, WH, et al. Endovascular thrombectomy after large-vessel ischaemic stroke: a meta-analysis of individual patient data from five randomised trials. Lancet 2016; 387(10029): 1723–31.Google Scholar
Moniz, E. L'encéphalographie artérielle, son importance dans la localisation des tumeurs cérébrales. Rev Neurol 1927; 11: 7290.Google Scholar
Willinsky, RA, Taylor, SM, terBrugge, K, et al. Neurologic complications of cerebral angiography: prospective analysis of 2,899 procedures and review of the literature. Radiology 2003; 227(2): 522–8.Google Scholar
Jung, S, Gilgen, M, Slotboom, J, et al. Factors that determine penumbral tissue loss in acute ischaemic stroke. Brain 2013; 136(12): 3554–60.Google Scholar
Struffert, T, Deuerling-Zheng, Y, Kloska, S, et al. Flat detector CT in the evaluation of brain parenchyma, intracranial vasculature, and cerebral blood volume: a pilot study in patients with acute symptoms of cerebral ischemia. Am J Neuroradiol 2010; 31(8): 1462–9.Google Scholar
Mordasini, P, El-Koussy, M, Brekenfeld, C, et al. Applicability of tableside flat panel detector CT parenchymal cerebral blood volume measurement in neurovascular interventions: preliminary clinical experience. Am J Neuroradiol 2012; 33(1): 154–8.Google Scholar
Beuing, O, Boese, A, Kyriakou, Y, et al. A novel technique for the measurement of CBF and CBV with robot-arm-mounted flat panel CT in a large-animal model. Am J Neuroradiol 2014; 35(9): 1740–5.Google Scholar
Mueller, L, Pult, F, Meisterernst, J, et al. Impact of intravenous thrombolysis on recanalization rates in patients with stroke treated with bridging therapy. Eur J Neurol 2017; 24(8): 1016–21.Google Scholar
Furlan, A, Higashida, R, Wechsler, L, et al. Intra-arterial prourokinase for acute ischemic stroke. JAMA 1999; 282(21): 2003–11.Google Scholar
Ogawa, A, Mori, E, Minematsu, K, et al. Randomized trial of intraarterial infusion of urokinase within 6 hours of middle cerebral artery stroke: the Middle Cerebral Artery Embolism Local Fibrinolytic Intervention Trial (MELT) Japan. Stroke 2007; 38(10): 2633–9.Google Scholar
Arnold, M, Schroth, G, Nedeltchev, K, et al. Intra-arterial thrombolysis in 100 patients with acute stroke due to middle cerebral artery occlusion. Stroke 2002; 33(7): 1828–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mattle, HP, Arnold, M, Georgiadis, D, et al. Comparison of intraarterial and intravenous thrombolysis for ischemic stroke with hyperdense middle cerebral artery sign. Stroke 2008; 39(2): 379–83.Google Scholar
Nakano, S, Iseda, T, Yoneyama, T, Kawano, H, Wakisaka, S. Direct percutaneous transluminal angioplasty for acute middle cerebral artery trunk occlusion: an alternative option to intra-arterial thrombolysis. Stroke 2002; 33(12): 2872–6.Google Scholar
Mahon, BR, Nesbit, GM, Barnwell, SL, et al. North American clinical experience with the EKOS MicroLysUS infusion catheter for the treatment of embolic stroke. Am J Neuroradiol 2003; 24(3): 534–8.Google Scholar
Berlis, A, Lutsep, H, Barnwell, S, et al. Mechanical thrombolysis in acute ischemic stroke with endovascular photoacoustic recanalization. Stroke 2004; 35(5): 1112–16.Google Scholar
Gralla, J, Schroth, G, Remonda, L, et al. Mechanical thrombectomy for acute ischemic stroke: thrombus-device interaction, efficiency, and complications in vivo. Stroke 2006; 37(12): 3019–24.Google Scholar
Brekenfeld, C, Schroth, G, El-Koussy, M, et al. Mechanical thromboembolectomy for acute ischemic stroke: comparison of the catch thromboectomy device and the Merci Retriever in vivo. Stroke 2008; 39(4): 1213–19.Google Scholar
Smith, WS, Sung, G, Saver, J, et al. Mechanical thrombectomy for acute ischemic stroke: final results of the multi MERCI trial. Stroke 2008; 39(4): 1205–12.Google Scholar
Broderick, JP, Palesch, YY, Demchuk, AM, et al. Endovascular therapy after intravenous t-PA versus t-PA alone for stroke. N Engl J Med 2013; 368(10): 893903.Google Scholar
Ciccone, A, Valvassori, L, Nichelatti, M, et al. Endovascular treatment for acute ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2013; 368(10): 904–13.Google Scholar
Kidwell, CS, Jahan, R, Gornbein, J, et al. A trial of imaging selection and endovascular treatment for ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2013; 368(10): 914–23.Google Scholar
Levy, EI, Rahman, M, Khalessi, AA, et al. Midterm clinical and angiographic follow-up for the first Food and Drug Administration-approved prospective, single-arm trial of primary stenting for stroke: SARIS (Stent-Assisted Recanalization for acute Ischemic Stroke). Neurosurgery 2011; 69(4): 915–20.Google Scholar
Brekenfeld, C, Schroth, G, Mattle, HP, et al. Stent placement in acute cerebral artery occlusion: use of a self-expandable intracranial stent for acute stroke treatment. Stroke 2009; 40(3): 847–52.Google Scholar
Nedeltchev, K, Remonda, L, Do, DD, et al. Acute stenting and thromboaspiration in basilar artery occlusions due to embolism from the dominating vertebral artery. Neuroradiology 2004; 46(8): 686–91.Google Scholar
Nedeltchev, K, Brekenfeld, C, Remonda, L, et al. Internal carotid artery stent implantation in 25 patients with acute stroke: preliminary results. Radiology 2005; 237(3): 1029–37.Google Scholar
Krasokha, N, Theisen, W, Reese, S, et al. Mechanical properties of blood clots – a new test method. Materwiss Werksttech 2010; 41(12): 1019–24.Google Scholar
Po Sit, S. The penumbra pivotal stroke trial: safety and effectiveness of a new generation of mechanical devices for clot removal in intracranial large vessel occlusive disease. Stroke 2009; 40(8): 2761–8.Google Scholar
Mocco, J, Zaidat, OO, Von Kummer, R, et al. Aspiration thrombectomy after intravenous alteplase versus intravenous alteplase alone. Stroke 2016; 47(9): 2331–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wakhloo, AK, Gounis, MJ. Retrievable closed cell intracranial stent for foreign body and clot removal. Neurosurgery 2008; 62(5 Suppl 2): ONS390-3; discussion ONS393-4.Google Scholar
Kelly, ME, Furlan, AJ, Fiorella, D. Recanalization of an acute middle cerebral artery occlusion using a self-expanding, reconstrainable, intracranial microstent as a temporary endovascular bypass. Stroke 2008; 39(6): 1770–3.Google Scholar
Pérez, MA, Miloslavski, E, Fischer, S, Bäzner, H, Henkes, H. Intracranial thrombectomy using the Solitaire stent: a historical vignette: Figure 1. J Neurointerv Surg 2012; 4(6): e32.Google Scholar
Mordasini, P, Frabetti, N, Gralla, J, et al. In vivo evaluation of the first dedicated combined flow-restoration and mechanical thrombectomy device in a swine model of acute vessel occlusion. Am J Neuroradiol 2011; 32(2): 294300.Google Scholar
Brekenfeld, C, Schroth, G, Mordasini, P, et al. Impact of retrievable stents on acute ischemic stroke treatment. Am J Neuroradiol 2011; 32(7): 1269–73.Google Scholar
Castaño, C, Dorado, L, Guerrero, C, et al. Mechanical thrombectomy with the solitaire AB device in large artery occlusions of the anterior circulation: a pilot study. Stroke 2010; 41(8): 1836–40.Google Scholar
Pereira, VM, Gralla, J, Davalos, A, et al. Prospective, multicenter, single-arm study of mechanical thrombectomy using solitaire flow restoration in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 2013; 44(10): 2802–7.Google Scholar
Saver, JL, Jahan, R, Levy, EI, et al. Solitaire flow restoration device versus the Merci Retriever in patients with acute ischaemic stroke (SWIFT): a randomised, parallel-group, non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2012; 380(9849): 1241–9.Google Scholar
Nogueira, RG, Lutsep, HL, Gupta, R, et al. Trevo versus Merci retrievers for thrombectomy revascularisation of large vessel occlusions in acute ischaemic stroke (TREVO 2): a randomised trial. Lancet 2012; 380(9849): 1231–40.Google Scholar
Lapergue, B, Blanc, R, Gory, B, et al. Effect of endovascular contact aspiration vs stent retriever on revascularization in patients with acute ischemic stroke and large vessel occlusion. JAMA 2017; 318(5): 443.Google Scholar
Chueh, J-Y, Puri, AS, Wakhloo, AK, Gounis, MJ. Risk of distal embolization with stent retriever thrombectomy and ADAPT. J Neurointerv Surg 2016; 8(2): 197202.Google Scholar
Gratz, PP, Schroth, G, Gralla, J, et al. Whole-brain susceptibility-weighted thrombus imaging in stroke: fragmented thrombi predict worse outcome. Am J Neuroradiol 2015; 36(7): 1277–82.Google Scholar
Klinger-Gratz, PP, Schroth, G, Gralla, J, et al. Protected stent retriever thrombectomy prevents iatrogenic emboli in new vascular territories. Neuroradiology 2015; 57(10): 1045–54.Google Scholar
Hacke, W, Zeumer, H, Ferbert, A, Bruckmann, H, del Zoppo, GJ. Intra-arterial thrombolytic therapy improves outcome in patients with acute vertebrobasilar occlusive disease. Stroke 1988; 19(10): 1216–22.Google Scholar
Macleod, MR, Davis, SM, Mitchell, PJ, et al. Results of a multicentre, randomised controlled trial of intra-arterial urokinase in the treatment of acute posterior circulation ischaemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2005; 20(1): 1217.Google Scholar
Schonewille, WJ, Wijman, CAC, Michel, P, et al. Treatment and outcomes of acute basilar artery occlusion in the Basilar Artery International Cooperation Study (BASICS): a prospective registry study. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8(8): 724–30.Google Scholar
Singer, OC, Berkefeld, J, Nolte, CH, et al. Mechanical recanalization in basilar artery occlusion: the ENDOSTROKE study. Ann Neurol 2015; 77(3): 415–24.Google Scholar
Lindsberg, PJ, Pekkola, J, Strbian, D, Mattle, HP, Schroth, G. Time window for recanalization in basilar artery occlusion. Neurology 2015; 85(20): 1806–15.Google Scholar
Strbian, D, Sairanen, T, Silvennoinen, H, et al. Thrombolysis of basilar artery occlusion: impact of baseline ischemia and time. Ann Neurol 2013; 73(6): 688–94.Google Scholar
Strbian, D, Sairanen, T, Silvennoinen, H, Salonen, O, Lindsberg, PJ. Intravenous thrombolysis of basilar artery occlusion: thrombus length versus recanalization success. Stroke 2014; 45(6): 1733–8.Google Scholar
Jung, S, Mono, ML, Fischer, U, et al. Three-month and long-term outcomes and their predictors in acute basilar artery occlusion treated with intra-arterial thrombolysis. Stroke 2011; 42(7): 1946–51.Google Scholar
Mordasini, P, Brekenfeld, C, Byrne, JV, et al. Technical feasibility and application of mechanical thrombectomy with the Solitaire FR Revascularization Device in acute basilar artery occlusion. Am J Neuroradiol 2013; 34(1): 159–63.Google Scholar
Gerber, JC, Daubner, D, Kaiser, D, et al. Efficacy and safety of direct aspiration first pass technique versus stent-retriever thrombectomy in acute basilar artery occlusion – a retrospective single center experience. Neuroradiology 2017; 59(3): 297304.Google Scholar
Lee, YY, Yoon, W, Kim, SK, et al. Acute basilar artery occlusion: differences in characteristics and outcomes after endovascular therapy between patients with and without underlying severe atherosclerotic stenosis. Am J Neuroradiol 2017; 38(8): 1600–4.Google Scholar
Karameshev, A, Schroth, G, Mordasini, P, et al. Long-term outcome of symptomatic severe ostial vertebral artery stenosis (OVAS). Neuroradiology 2010; 52(5): 371–9.Google Scholar
Meyer, FB, Sundt, TMJ, Piepgras, DG, Sandok, BA, Forbes, G. Emergency carotid endarterectomy for patients with acute carotid occlusion and profound neurological deficits. Ann Surg 1986; 203(1): 82–9.Google Scholar
Rubiera, M, Ribo, M, Delgado-Mederos, R, et al. Tandem internal carotid artery/middle cerebral artery occlusion: an independent predictor of poor outcome after systemic thrombolysis. Stroke 2006; 37(9): 2301–5.Google Scholar
Fischer, U, Mono, ML, Schroth, G, et al. Endovascular therapy in 201 patients with acute symptomatic occlusion of the internal carotid artery. Eur J Neurol 2013; 20(7): 1017–24.Google Scholar
Behme, D, Mpotsaris, A, Zeyen, P, et al. Emergency stenting of the extracranial internal carotid artery in combination with anterior circulation thrombectomy in acute ischemic stroke: a retrospective multicenter study. Am J Neuroradiol 2015; 36(12): 2340–5.Google Scholar
Sivan-Hoffmann, R, Gory, B, Armoiry, X, et al. Stent-retriever thrombectomy for acute anterior ischemic stroke with tandem occlusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Radiol 2017; 27(1): 247–54.Google Scholar
Tawk, RG. Revascularization of tandem occlusions in acute ischemic stroke: review of the literature and illustrative case. Neurosurg Focus 2017; 42(4): E15.Google Scholar
Galimanis, A, Jung, S, Mono, ML, et al. Endovascular therapy of 623 patients with anterior circulation stroke. Stroke 2012; 43(4): 1052–7.Google Scholar
Meier, N, Fischer, U, Schroth, G, et al. Outcome after thrombolysis for acute isolated posterior cerebral artery occlusion. Cerebrovasc Dis 2011; 32(1): 7988.Google Scholar
Saber, H, Narayanan, S, Palla, M, et al. Mechanical thrombectomy for acute ischemic stroke with occlusion of the M2 segment of the middle cerebral artery: a meta-analysis. J Neurointerv Surg 2017; 10(7): 620–4.Google Scholar
Jansen, O, Szikora, I, Causin, F, Brückmann, H, Lobotesis, K. Standards of practice in interventional neuroradiology. Neuroradiology 2017; 59(6): 541–4.Google Scholar
Fiehler, J, Cognard, C, Gallitelli, M, et al. European recommendations on organisation of interventional care in acute stroke (EROICAS). Eur Stroke J 2016; 1(3): 155–70.Google Scholar
ter Brugge, K. Regarding training guidelines for endovascular ischemic stroke intervention. Interv Neuroradiol 2016; 22(3): 253.Google Scholar

References

Steiner, T, Mendoza, G, De Georgia, M, et al. Prognosis of stroke patients requiring mechanical ventilation in a neurological critical care unit. Stroke 1997; 28(4): 711–15.Google Scholar
Mayer, SA, Copeland, D, Bernardini, GL, et al. Cost and outcome of mechanical ventilation for life-threatening stroke. Stroke 2000; 31(10): 2346–53.Google Scholar
Jauch, EC, Saver, JL, Adams, HP, Jr., et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2013; 44(3): 870947.Google Scholar
Powers, WJ, Derdeyn, CP, Biller, J, et al. 2015 American Heart Association/American Stroke Association focused update of the 2013 Guidelines for the Early Management of Patients with Acute Ischemic Stroke Regarding Endovascular Treatment: A Guideline for Healthcare Professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2015; 46(10): 3020–35.Google Scholar
Torbey, MT, Bösel, J, Rhoney, DH, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for the management of large hemispheric infarction: a statement for health care professionals from the Neurocritical Care Society and the German Society for Neuro-Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine. Neurocrit Care 2015; 22(1): 146–64.Google Scholar
Hemphill, JC, 3rd, Greenberg, SM, Anderson, CS, et al. Guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2015; 46(7): 2032–60.Google Scholar
Steiner, T, Al-Shahi Salman, R, Beer, R, et al. European Stroke Organisation (ESO) guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Int J Stroke 2014; 9(7): 840–55.Google Scholar
Iscoe, S, Fisher, JA. Hyperoxia-induced hypocapnia: an underappreciated risk. Chest 2005; 128(1): 430–3.Google Scholar
Diringer, MN. Hyperoxia: good or bad for the injured brain? Curr Opin Crit Care 2008; 14(2): 167–71.Google Scholar
Wendell, LC, Raser, J, Kasner, S, Park, S. Predictors of extubation success in patients with middle cerebral artery acute ischemic stroke. Stroke Res Treat 2011; 2011: 248789.Google ScholarPubMed
Steidl, C, Boesel, J, Suntrup-Krueger, S, et al. Tracheostomy, extubation, reintubation: airway management decisions in intubated stroke patients. Cerebrovasc Dis 2017; 44(1–2): 19.Google Scholar
Bösel, J. Who is safe to extubate in the neuroscience intensive care unit? Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2017; 38(6): 830–9.Google Scholar
Bösel, J. Use and timing of tracheostomy after severe stroke. Stroke 2017; 48(9): 2638–43.Google Scholar
Bösel, J, Schiller, P, Hook, Y, et al. Stroke-related early tracheostomy versus prolonged orotracheal intubation in neurocritical care trial (SETPOINT): a randomized pilot trial. Stroke 2013; 44(1): 21–8.Google Scholar
Schönenberger, S, Niesen, WD, Fuhrer, H, et al. Early tracheostomy in ventilated stroke patients: study protocol of the international multicentre randomized trial SETPOINT2 (Stroke-related Early Tracheostomy vs. Prolonged Orotracheal Intubation in Neurocritical care Trial 2). Int J Stroke 2016; 11(3): 368–79.Google Scholar
Huttner, HB, Kohrmann, M, Berger, C, Georgiadis, D, Schwab, S. Predictive factors for tracheostomy in neurocritical care patients with spontaneous supratentorial hemorrhage. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006; 21(3): 159–65.Google Scholar
Szeder, V, Ortega-Gutierrez, S, Ziai, W, Torbey, MT. The TRACH score: clinical and radiological predictors of tracheostomy in supratentorial spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Neurocrit Care 2010; 13(1): 40–6.Google Scholar
Schönenberger, S, Al-Suwaidan, F, Kieser, M, Uhlmann, L, Bösel, J. The SETscore to predict tracheostomy need in cerebrovascular neurocritical care patients. Neurocrit Care 2016; 25(1): 94104.Google Scholar
Teitelbaum, JS, Ayoub, O, Skrobik, Y. A critical appraisal of sedation, analgesia and delirium in neurocritical care. Can J Neurol Sci 2011; 38(6): 815–25.Google Scholar
Geeganage, C, Beavan, J, Ellender, S, Bath, PM. Interventions for dysphagia and nutritional support in acute and subacute stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 10: CD000323.Google Scholar
Kramer, AH, Roberts, DJ, Zygun, DA. Optimal glycemic control in neurocritical care patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care 2012; 16(5): R203.Google Scholar
Kellert, L, Schrader, F, Ringleb, P, Steiner, T, Bosel, J. The impact of low hemoglobin levels and transfusion on critical care patients with severe ischemic stroke: STroke: RelevAnt Impact of HemoGlobin, Hematocrit and Transfusion (STRAIGHT) – an observational study. J Crit Care 2014; 29(2): 236–40.Google Scholar
Kramer, AH, Zygun, DA. Anemia and red blood cell transfusion in neurocritical care. Crit Care 2009; 13(3): R89.Google Scholar
Dennis, M, Mordi, N, Graham, C, Sandercock, P. The timing, extent, progression and regression of deep vein thrombosis in immobile stroke patients: observational data from the CLOTS multicenter randomized trials. J Thromb Haemost 2011; 9(11): 2193–200.Google Scholar
Dennis, M, Sandercock, P, Reid, J, et al. Effectiveness of intermittent pneumatic compression in reduction of risk of deep vein thrombosis in patients who have had a stroke (CLOTS 3): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2013; 382(9891): 516–24.Google Scholar
Sandercock, PA, van den Belt, AG, Lindley, RI, Slattery, J. Antithrombotic therapy in acute ischaemic stroke: an overview of the completed randomised trials. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1993; 56(1): 1725.Google Scholar
Boeer, A, Voth, E, Henze, T, Prange, HW. Early heparin therapy in patients with spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54(5): 466–7.Google Scholar
Kuramatsu, JB, Gerner, ST, Schellinger, PD, et al. Anticoagulant reversal, blood pressure levels, and anticoagulant resumption in patients with anticoagulation-related intracerebral hemorrhage. JAMA 2015; 313(8): 824–36.Google Scholar
den Hertog, HM, van der Worp, HB, van Gemert, HM, et al. The Paracetamol (Acetaminophen) In Stroke (PAIS) trial: a multicentre, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase III trial. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8(5): 434–40.Google Scholar
Den Hertog, HM, van der Worp, HB, Tseng, MC, Dippel, DW. Cooling therapy for acute stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; 1: CD001247.Google Scholar
Brophy, GM, Bell, R, Claassen, J, et al. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2012; 17(1): 323.Google Scholar
Sheth, KN, Elm, JJ, Molyneaux, BJ, et al. Safety and efficacy of intravenous glyburide on brain swelling after large hemispheric infarction (GAMES-RP): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 trial. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15(11): 1160–9.Google Scholar
Sandercock, PA, Soane, T. Corticosteroids for acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; 9: CD000064.Google Scholar
Steiner, T, Bösel, J. Options to restrict hematoma expansion after spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Stroke 2010; 41(2): 402–9.Google Scholar
Rodrigues, FB, Neves, JB, Caldeira, D, Endovascular treatment versus medical care alone for ischaemic stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2016; 353: i1754.Google Scholar
Brinjikji, W, Murad, MH, Rabinstein, AA. Conscious sedation versus general anesthesia during endovascular acute ischemic stroke treatment: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2015; 36(3): 525–9.Google Scholar
Campbell, BCV, van Zwam, WH, Goyal, M, et al. Effect of general anaesthesia on functional outcome in patients with anterior circulation ischaemic stroke having endovascular thrombectomy versus standard care: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet Neurol 2018; 17(1): 4753.Google Scholar
Schönenberger, S, Uhlmann, L, Hacke, W, et al. Effect of conscious sedation vs general anesthesia on early neurological improvement among patients with ischemic stroke undergoing endovascular thrombectomy: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2016; 316(19): 1986–96.Google Scholar
Lowhagen Henden, P, Rentzos, A, Karlsson, JE, et al. General anesthesia versus conscious sedation for endovascular treatment of acute ischemic stroke: the AnStroke Trial (anesthesia during stroke). Stroke 2017; 48(6): 1601–7.Google Scholar
Bösel, J. Intensive care management of the endovascular stroke patient. Semin Neurol 2016; 36(6): 520–30.Google Scholar
Berrouschot, J, Sterker, M, Bettin, S, Koster, J, Schneider, D. Mortality of space-occupying (“malignant”) middle cerebral artery infarction under conservative intensive care. Intensive Care Med 1998; 24(6): 620–3.Google Scholar
Vahedi, K, Hofmeijer, J, Juettler, E, et al. Early decompressive surgery in malignant infarction of the middle cerebral artery: a pooled analysis of three randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6(3): 215–22.Google Scholar
Juttler, E, Unterberg, A, Woitzik, J, et al. Hemicraniectomy in older patients with extensive middle-cerebral-artery stroke. N Engl J Med 2014; 370(12): 1091–100.Google Scholar
Zha, AM, Sari, M, Torbey, MT. Recommendations for management of large hemispheric infarction. Curr Opin Crit Care 2015; 21(2): 91–8.Google Scholar
Steiner, T, Friede, T, Aschoff, A. Effect and feasibility of controlled rewarming after moderate hypothermia in stroke patients with malignant infarction of the middle cerebral artery. Stroke. 2001; 32(12): 2833–5.Google Scholar
Neugebauer, H, Kollma, R, Niesen, WD, et al. DEcompressive surgery Plus hypoTHermia for Space-Occupying Stroke (DEPTH-SOS): a protocol of a multicenter randomized controlled clinical trial and a literature review. Int J Stroke 2013; 8(5): 383–7.Google Scholar
Krieger, D, Busse, O, Schramm, J, Ferbert, A. German-Austrian Space Occupying Cerebellar Infarction Study (GASCIS): study design, methods, patient characteristics. The Steering and Protocol Commission. J Neurol 1992; 239(4): 183–5.Google Scholar
Jauss, M, Krieger, D, Hornig, C, Schramm, J, Busse, O. Surgical and medical management of patients with massive cerebellar infarctions: results of the German-Austrian Cerebellar Infarction Study. J Neurol 1999; 246(4): 257–64.Google Scholar
Pfefferkorn, T, Eppinger, U, Linn, J, et al. Long-term outcome after suboccipital decompressive craniectomy for malignant cerebellar infarction. Stroke 2009; 40(9): 3045–50.Google Scholar
Juttler, E, Schweickert, S, Ringleb, PA, et al. Long-term outcome after surgical treatment for space-occupying cerebellar infarction: experience in 56 patients. Stroke 2009; 40(9): 3060–6.Google Scholar
Pfefferkorn, T, Mayer, TE, Opherk, C, et al. Staged escalation therapy in acute basilar artery occlusion: intravenous thrombolysis and on-demand consecutive endovascular mechanical thrombectomy: preliminary experience in 16 patients. Stroke 2008; 39(5): 1496–500.Google Scholar
Schonewille, WJ, Wijman, CA, Michel, P, et al. Treatment and outcomes of acute basilar artery occlusion in the Basilar Artery International Cooperation Study (BASICS): a prospective registry study. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8(8): 724–30.Google Scholar
Angstwurm, K, Borges, AC, Halle, E, et al. Timing the valve replacement in infective endocarditis involving the brain. J Neurol 2004; 251(10): 1220–6.Google Scholar
Hemphill, JC, 3rd. Do-not-resuscitate orders, unintended consequences, and the ripple effect. Crit Care 2007; 11(2): 121.Google Scholar
Anderson, CS, Heeley, E, Huang, Y, et al. Rapid blood-pressure lowering in patients with acute intracerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2013; 368(25): 2355–65.Google Scholar
Chan, E, Anderson, CS, Wang, X, et al. Early blood pressure lowering does not reduce growth of intraventricular hemorrhage following acute intracerebral hemorrhage: results of the INTERACT studies. Cerebrovasc Dis Extra 2016; 6(3): 71–5.Google Scholar
Qureshi, AI, Palesch, YY, Barsan, WG, et al. Intensive blood-pressure lowering in patients with acute cerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2016; 375(11): 1033–43.Google Scholar
Mayer, SA, Brun, NC, Begtrup, K, et al. Efficacy and safety of recombinant activated factor VII for acute intracerebral hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 2008; 358(20): 2127–37.Google Scholar
Baharoglu, MI, Cordonnier, C, Al-Shahi Salman, R, et al. Platelet transfusion versus standard care after acute stroke due to spontaneous cerebral haemorrhage associated with antiplatelet therapy (PATCH): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet 2016; 387(10038): 2605–13.Google Scholar
Sprigg, N, Robson, K, Bath, P, et al. Intravenous tranexamic acid for hyperacute primary intracerebral hemorrhage: protocol for a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Int J Stroke 2016; 11(6): 683–94.Google Scholar
Frontera, JA, Lewin, JJ, 3rd, Rabinstein, AA, et al. Guideline for Reversal of Antithrombotics in Intracranial Hemorrhage: Executive Summary. A Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the Neurocritical Care Society and the Society of Critical Care Medicine. Crit Care Med 2016; 44(12): 2251–7.Google Scholar
Mendelow, AD, Gregson, BA, Fernandes, HM, et al. Early surgery versus initial conservative treatment in patients with spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral haematomas in the International Surgical Trial in Intracerebral Haemorrhage (STICH): a randomised trial. Lancet 2005; 365(9457): 387–97.Google Scholar
Mendelow, AD, Gregson, BA, Rowan, EN, et al. Early surgery versus initial conservative treatment in patients with spontaneous supratentorial lobar intracerebral haematomas (STICH II): a randomised trial. Lancet 2013; 382(9890): 397408.Google Scholar
Beynon, C, Schiebel, P, Bosel, J, Unterberg, AW, Orakcioglu, B. Minimally invasive endoscopic surgery for treatment of spontaneous intracerebral haematomas. Neurosurg Rev 2015; 38(3): 421–8; discussion 8.Google Scholar
Hanley, DF, Thompson, RE, Muschelli, J, et al. Safety and efficacy of minimally invasive surgery plus alteplase in intracerebral haemorrhage evacuation (MISTIE): a randomised, controlled, open-label, phase 2 trial. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15(12): 1228–37.Google Scholar
Bösel, J, Zweckberger, K, Hacke, W. Haemorrhage and hemicraniectomy: refining surgery for stroke. Curr Opin Neurol 2015; 28(1): 1622.Google Scholar
Hanley, DF, Lane, K, McBee, N, et al. Thrombolytic removal of intraventricular haemorrhage in treatment of severe stroke: results of the randomised, multicentre, multiregion, placebo-controlled CLEAR III trial. Lancet 2017; 389(10069): 603–11.Google Scholar

References

Wallace, JD, Levy, LL. Blood pressure after stroke. JAMA 1981; 246: 2177–80.Google Scholar
Carlberg, B, Asplund, K, Hägg, E. Factors influencing admission blood pressure levels in patients with acute stroke. Stroke 1991; 22: 527–30.Google Scholar
Urrutia, VC, Wityk, RJ. Blood pressure management in acute stroke. Crit Care Clin 2006; 22: 695711.Google Scholar
Ahmed, N, de la Torre, B, Wahlgren, NG. Salivary cortisol, a biological marker of stress, is positively associated with 24-hour systolic blood pressure in patients with acute ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2004; 18: 206–13.Google Scholar
Christensen, H. Acute stroke – a dynamic process. Dan Med Bull 2007; 54(3): 210–25.Google Scholar
Leonardi-Bee, J, Bath, PM, Phillips, SJ, Sandercock, PA, IST Collaborative Group. Blood pressure and clinical outcomes in the International Stroke Trial. Stroke 2002; 33: 1315–20.Google Scholar
Vemmos, KN, Tsivgoulis, G, Spengos, K, et al. U-shaped relationship between mortality and admission blood pressure in patients with acute stroke. J Intern Med 2004; 255: 257–65.Google Scholar
Grabska, K, Niewada, M, Sarzyńska-Długosz, I, Kamiński, B, Członkowska, A. Pulse pressure – independent predictor of poor early outcome and mortality following ischemic stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2009; 27: 187–92.Google Scholar
Aslanyan, S, Fazekas, F, Weir, CJ, et al. Effect of blood pressure during the acute period of ischemic stroke on stroke outcome: a tertiary analysis of the GAIN International Trial. Stroke 2003; 34: 2420–5.Google Scholar
Jansen, PAF, Schulte, BPM, Poels, EFJ, Gribnau, FWJ. Course of blood pressure after cerebral infarction and transient ischemic attack. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1987; 89: 243–6.Google Scholar
Semplicini, A, Maresca, A, Boscolo, G, et al. Hypertension in acute ischemic stroke. A compensatory mechanism or an additional damaging factor? Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 211–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Willmot, M, Leonardi-Bee, J, Bath, PM. High blood pressure in acute stroke and subsequent outcome: a systematic review. Hypertension 2004; 43: 1824.Google Scholar
Brott, T, Lu, M, Kothari, R, et al. Hypertension and its treatment in the NINDS rt-PA Stroke Trial. Stroke 1998; 29: 1504–9.Google Scholar
Chamorro, A, Vila, N, Ascaso, C, et al. Blood pressure and functional recovery in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 1998; 29: 1850–3.Google Scholar
Carlberg, B, Asplund, K, Hägg, E. The prognostic value of admission blood pressure in patients with acute stroke. Stroke 1993; 24: 1372–5.Google Scholar
Ahmed, N, Wahlgren, N, Brainin, M, et al. Relationship of blood pressure, antihypertensive therapy, and outcome in ischemic stroke treated with intravenous thrombolysis: retrospective analysis from Safe Implementation of Thrombolysis in Stroke-International Stroke Thrombolysis Register (SITS- ISTR). Stroke 2009; 40: 2442–9.Google Scholar
Mattle, HP, Kappeler, L, Arnold, M, et al. Blood pressure and vessel recanalization in the first hours after ischemic stroke. Stroke 2005; 36: 264–8.Google Scholar
Bowry, R, Navalkele, DD, Gonzales, NR. Blood pressure management in stroke: five new things. Neurol Clin Pract 2014; 4: 419–26.Google Scholar
Hong, KS. Blood pressure management for stroke prevention and in acute stroke. J Stroke 2017; 19: 152–65.Google Scholar
Wahlgren, N, Ahmed, N, Eriksson, N, et al. Multivariable analysis of outcome predictors and adjustment of main outcome results to baseline data profile in randomized controlled trials: safe implementation of thrombolysis in stroke-monitoring study (SITS-MOST). Stroke 2008; 39: 3316–22.Google Scholar
Huang, Y, Sharma, VK, Robinson, T, et al. Rationale, design, and progress of the ENhanced Control of Hypertension ANd Thrombolysis strokE stuDy (ENCHANTED) trial: an international multicenter 2×2 quasi-factorial randomized controlled trial of low- vs. standard-dose rt-PA and early intensive vs. guideline-recommended blood pressure lowering in patients with acute ischaemic stroke eligible for thrombolysis treatment. Int J Stroke 2015; 10: 778–88.Google Scholar
Shin, HK, Nishimura, M, Jones, PB, et al. Mild induced hypertension improves blood flow and oxygen metabolism in transient focal cerebral ischemia. Stroke 2008; 39: 1548–55.Google Scholar
Rordorf, G, Koroshetz, WJ, Ezzeddine, MA, Segal, AZ, Buonanno, FS. A pilot study of drug-induced hypertension for treatment of acute stroke. Neurology 2001; 56: 1210–13.Google Scholar
Marzan, AS, Hungerbühler, HJ, Studer, A, Baumgartner, RW, Georgiadis, D. Feasibility and safety of norepinephrine-induced arterial hypertension in acute ischemic stroke. Neurology 2004; 62: 1193–5.Google Scholar
Hillis, AE, Ulatowski, JA, Barker, PB, et al. A pilot randomized trial of induced blood pressure elevation: effects on function and focal perfusion in acute and subacute stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 2003; 16: 236–46.Google Scholar
Olsen, TS, Larsen, B, Herning, M, Skriver, EB, Lassen, NA. Blood flow and vascular reactivity in collaterally perfused brain tissue. Evidence of an ischemic penumbra in patients with acute stroke. Stroke 1983; 14: 332–41.Google Scholar
Mistri, AK, Robinson, TG, Potter, JF. Pressor therapy in acute ischemic stroke: systematic review. Stroke 2006; 37: 1565–71.Google Scholar
Kim, HJ, Kang, DW. Induced hypertensive therapy in an acute ischemic stroke patient with early neurological deterioration. J Clin Neurol 2007; 3: 187–91.Google Scholar
Serena, J, Rodríguez-Yáñez, M, Castellanos, M. Deterioration in acute ischemic stroke as the target for neuroprotection. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006; 21: 80–8.Google Scholar
Astrup, J, Siesjo, BK, Symon, L. Thresholds in cerebral ischemia – the ischemic penumbra. Stroke 1981; 12: 723–5.Google Scholar
Wityk, RJ. Blood pressure augmentation in acute ischemic stroke. J Neurol Sci 2007; 261: 6373.Google Scholar
Schrader, J, Lüders, S, Kulschewski, A, et al. Acute Candesartan Cilexetil Therapy in Stroke Survivors Study Group. The ACCESS Study: evaluation of acute candesartan cilexetil therapy in stroke survivors. Stroke 2003; 34: 1699–703.Google Scholar
Potter, JF, Robinson, TG, Ford, GA, et al. Controlling hypertension and hypotension immediately post-stroke (CHHIPS): a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind pilot trial. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8: 4856.Google Scholar
Sandset, EC, Bath, PM, Boysen, G, et al. The angiotensin-receptor blocker candesartan for treatment of acute stroke (SCAST): a randomised, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Lancet 2011; 377: 741–50.Google Scholar
Copen, WA, Schaefer, PW, Wu, O. MR perfusion imaging in acute ischemic stroke. Neuroimaging Clin N Am 2011; 21: 259–83.Google Scholar
Adams, HP, Jr., del Zoppo, G, Alberts, MJ, et al. Guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: a guideline from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association Stroke Council, Clinical Cardiology Council, Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention Council, and the Atherosclerotic Peripheral Vascular Disease and Quality of Care Outcomes in Research Interdisciplinary Working Groups: the American Academy of Neurology affirms the value of this guideline as an educational tool for neurologists. Stroke 2007; 38: 1655–711.Google Scholar
The European Stroke Organisation (ESO) Executive Committee and the ESO Writing Committee. Guidelines for management of ischaemic stroke and transient ischaemic attack 2008. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008; 25: 457507.Google Scholar
Jauch, EC, Saver, JL, Adams, HP, Jr., et al. Guidelines for the early management of patients with acute ischemic stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2013; 44: 870947.Google Scholar
ENOS Trial Investigators. Efficacy of nitric oxide, with or without continuing antihypertensive treatment, for management of high blood pressure in acute stroke (ENOS): a partial-factorial randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2015; 385: 617–28.Google Scholar
Vázquez-Cruz, J, Martí-Vilalta, JL, Ferrer, I, Pérez-Gallofré, A, Folch, J. Progressing cerebral infarction in relation to plasma glucose in gerbils. Stroke 1990; 21: 1621–4.Google Scholar
Martín, A, Rojas, S, Chamorro, A, et al. Why does acute hyperglycemia worsen the outcome of transient focal cerebral ischemia? Role of corticosteroids, inflammation, and protein O-glycosylation. Stroke 2006; 37: 1288–95.Google Scholar
Kiers, L, Davis, SM, Larkins, R, et al. Stroke topography and outcome in relation to hyperglycaemia and diabetes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1992; 55: 263–70.Google Scholar
Matz, K, Keresztes, K, Tatschl, C, et al. Disorders of glucose metabolism in acute stroke patients: an underrecognized problem. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 792–7.Google Scholar
McCormick, MT, Muir, KW, Gray, CS, Walters, MR. Management of hyperglycemia in acute stroke: how, when, and for whom? Stroke 2008; 39: 2177–85.Google Scholar
Capes, SE, Hunt, D, Malmberg, K, Pathak, P, Gerstein, HC. Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of stroke in nondiabetic and diabetic patients: a systematic overview. Stroke 2001; 32: 2426–32.Google Scholar
Alvarez-Sabín, J, Molina, CA, Montaner, J, et al. Effects of admission hyperglycemia on stroke outcome in reperfused tissue plasminogen activator-treated patients. Stroke 2003; 34: 1235–41.Google Scholar
Parsons, MW, Barber, PA, Desmond, PM, et al. Acute hyperglycemia adversely affects stroke outcome: a magnetic resonance imaging and spectroscopy study. Ann Neurol 2002; 52: 20–8.Google Scholar
Pan, Y, Cai, X, Jing, J, et al. Stress hyperglycemia and prognosis of minor ischemic stroke and transient ischemic attack: the CHANCE Study (Clopidogrel in High-Risk Patients With Acute Nondisabling Cerebrovascular Events). Stroke 2017; 48: 3006–11.Google Scholar
Allport, LE, Butcher, KS, Baird, TA, et al. Insular cortical ischemia is independently associated with acute stress hyperglycemia. Stroke 2004; 35: 1886–91.Google Scholar
Rehman, A, Kumar, A, Razzaque, S, Kumar, A, Ghauri, MI. Stress induced hyperglycemia in stroke patients. Pakistan J Neurological Sci 2015; 10: Article 4.Google Scholar
van den Berghe, G, Wouters, P, Weekers, F, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1359–67.Google Scholar
Malmberg, K. Prospective randomized study of intensive insulin treatment on long term survival after acute myocardial infarction in patients with diabetes mellitus. DIGAMI (Diabetes Mellitus, Insulin Glucose Infusion in Acute Myocardial Infarction) Study Group. BMJ 1997; 314: 1512–15.Google Scholar
Gray, CS, Hildreth, AJ, Sandercock, PA, et al. Glucose- potassium-insulin infusions in the management of post-stroke hyperglycaemia: the UK Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial (GIST-UK). Lancet Neurol 2007; 6: 397406.Google Scholar
Godoy, DA, Di Napoli, M, Rabinstein, AA. Treating hyperglycemia in neurocritical patients: benefits and perils. Neurocrit Care 2010; 13: 425–38.Google Scholar
Johnston, KC, Hall, CE, Kissela, BM, Bleck, TP, Conaway, MR; GRASP Investigators. Glucose regulation in acute stroke patients (GRASP) trial: a randomized pilot trial. Stroke 2009; 40: 3804–9.Google Scholar
Bruno, A, Kent, TA, Coull, BM, et al. Treatment of hyperglycemia in ischemic stroke (THIS): a randomized pilot trial. Stroke 2008; 39: 384–9.Google Scholar
Rosso, C, Corvol, JC, Pires, C, et al. Intensive versus subcutaneous insulin in patients with hyperacute stroke: results from the randomized INSULINFARCT trial. Stroke 2012; 43: 2343–9.Google Scholar
Baker, L, Juneja, R, Bruno, A. Management of hyperglycemia in acute ischemic stroke. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2011; 13: 616–28.Google Scholar
Bellolio, MF, Gilmore, RM, Stead, LG. Insulin for glycaemic control in acute ischaemic stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; 1: CD005346.Google Scholar
Cleland, SJ, Petrie, JR, Small, M, Elliott, HL, Connell, JM. Insulin action is associated with endothelial function in hypertension and type 2 diabetes. Hypertension 2000; 35: 507–11.Google Scholar
Marik, PE, Raghavan, M. Stress-hyperglycemia, insulin and immunomodulation in sepsis. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30: 748–56.Google Scholar
Bruno, A, Liebeskind, D, Hao, Q, Raychev, R, et al. Diabetes mellitus, acute hyperglycemia, and ischemic stroke. Curr Treat Options Neurol 2010; 12: 492503.Google Scholar
Walters, MR, Weir, CJ, Lees, KR. A randomised, controlled pilot study to investigate the potential benefit of intervention with insulin in hyperglycaemic acute ischaemic stroke patients. Cerebrovasc Dis 2006; 22: 116–22.Google Scholar
Gray, CS, Hildreth, AJ, Sandercock, PA, et al. Glucose-potassium-insulin infusions in the management of post-stroke hyperglycaemia: the UK Glucose Insulin in Stroke Trial (GIST-UK). Lancet Neurol 2007; 6: 397406.Google Scholar
Wan Sulaiman, WA, Hashim, HZ, Che Abdullah, ST, Hoo, FK, Basri, H. Managing post stroke hyperglycaemia: moderate glycaemic control is better? An update. EXCLI J 2014; 13: 825–33.Google Scholar
Intercollegiate Stroke Working Party. National Clinical Guideline for Stroke. 4th edn. London: RCP; 2012.Google Scholar
Memezawa, H, Zhao, Q, Smith, ML, Siesjö, BK. Hyperthermia nullifies the ameliorating effect of dizocilpine maleate (MK-801) in focal cerebral ischemia. Brain Res 1995; 670: 4852.Google Scholar
Wass, CT, Lanier, WL, Hofer, RE, Scheithauer, BW, Andrews, AG. Temperature changes of > or 1 degree C alter functional neurologic outcome and histopathology in a canine model of complete cerebral ischemia. Anesthesiology 1995; 83: 325–35.Google Scholar
Reith, J, Jørgensen, HS, Pedersen, PM, et al. Body temperature in acute stroke: relation to stroke severity, infarct size, mortality, and outcome. Lancet 1996; 347: 422–5.Google Scholar
Castillo, J, Dávalos, A, Marrugat, J, Noya, M. Timing for fever-related brain damage in acute ischemic stroke. Stroke 1998; 29: 2455–60.Google Scholar
Zaremba, J. Hyperthermia in ischemic stroke. Med Sci Monit 2004; 10: RA148–53.Google Scholar
Mercer, J. Glossary of terms for thermal physiology, third edition. Jpn J Physiol 2001; 51: 245–8.Google Scholar
Wrotek, SE, Kozak, WE, Hess, DC, Fagan, SC. Treatment of fever after stroke: conflicting evidence. Pharmacotherapy 2011; 31: 1085–91.Google Scholar
Kozak, W, Kluger, MJ, Tesfaigzi, J, et al. Molecular mechanisms of fever and endogenous antipyresis. Ann NY Acad Sci 2000; 917: 121–34.Google Scholar
Azzimondi, G, Bassein, L, Nonino, F, et al. Fever in acute stroke worsens prognosis. A prospective study. Stroke 1995; 26: 2040–3.Google Scholar
Greer, DM, Funk, SE, Reaven, NL, Ouzounelli, M, Uman, GC. Impact of fever on outcome in patients with stroke and neurologic injury: a comprehensive meta-analysis. Stroke 2008; 39: 3029–35.Google Scholar
Varon, J, Acosta, P. Therapeutic hypothermia: past, present, and future. Chest 2008; 133: 1267–74.Google Scholar
Hypothermia after Cardiac Arrest Study Group. Mild therapeutic hypothermia to improve the neurological outcome after cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 549–56.Google Scholar
Clifton, GL, Miller, ER, Choi, SC, et al. Lack of effect of induction of hypothermia after acute brain injury. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 556–63.Google Scholar
Kasner, SE, Wein, T, Piriyawat, P, et al. Acetaminophen for altering body temperature in acute stroke: a randomized clinical trial. Stroke 2002; 33: 130–4.Google Scholar
Dippel, DW, van Breda, EJ, van Gemert, HM, et al. Effect of paracetamol (acetaminophen) on body temperature in acute ischemic stroke: a double-blind, randomized phase II clinical trial. Stroke 2001; 32: 1607–12.Google Scholar
Schwab, S, Schwarz, S, Spranger, M, et al. Moderate hypothermia in the treatment of patients with severe middle cerebral artery infarction. Stroke 1998; 29: 2461–6.Google Scholar
Guluma, KZ, Oh, H, Yu, SW, et al. Effect of endovascular hypothermia on acute ischemic edema: morphometric analysis of the ICTuS trial. Neurocrit Care 2008; 8: 42–7.Google Scholar
Olsen, TS, Weber, UJ, Kammersgaard, LP, et al. Therapeutic hypothermia for acute stroke. Lancet Neurol 2003; 2: 410–16.Google Scholar
De Georgia, MA, Krieger, DW, Abou-Chebl, A, et al. Cooling for Acute Ischemic Brain Damage (COOL AID): a feasibility trial of endovascular cooling. Neurology 2004; 63: 312–17.Google Scholar
Lyden, P, Krieger, DW, Yenari, MA, Dietrich, WD. Therapeutic hypothermia for acute stroke. Int J Stroke 2006; 1: 919.Google Scholar
Yenari, M, Kitagawa, K, Lyden, P, Perez-Pinzon, M. Metabolic downregulation: a key to successful neuroprotection? Stroke 2008; 39: 2910–17.Google Scholar
Krieger, DW, Yenari, MA. Therapeutic hypothermia for acute ischemic stroke: what do laboratory studies teach us? Stroke 2004; 35: 1482–9.Google Scholar
Yenari, MA, Hemmen, TM. Therapeutic hypothermia for brain ischemia: where have we come and where do we go? Stroke 2010; 41: S72–4.Google Scholar
Forsgren, L, Bucht, G, Eriksson, S, Bergmark, L. Incidence and clinical characterization of unprovoked seizures in adults: a prospective population-based study. Epilepsia 1996; 37: 224–9.Google Scholar
Bladin, CF, Alexandrov, AV, Bellavance, A, et al. Seizures after stroke: a prospective multicenter study. Arch Neurol 2000; 57: 1617–22.Google Scholar
Lesser, RP, Luders, H, Dinner, DS, Morris, HH. Epileptic seizures due to thrombotic and embolic cerebrovascular disease in older patients. Epilepsia 1985; 26: 622–30.Google Scholar
So, EL, Annegers, JF, Hauser, WA, O'Brien, PC, Whisnant, JP. Population-based study of seizure disorders after cerebral infarction. Neurology 1996; 46: 350–5.Google Scholar
Kilpatrick, CJ, Davis, SM, Tress, BM, et al. Epileptic seizures in acute stroke. Arch Neurol 1990; 47: 157–60.Google Scholar
Shinton, RA, Gill, JS, Melnick, AK. The frequency, characteristics, and prognosis of epileptic seizures at the onset of stroke. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1988; 51: 273–6.Google Scholar
Arboix, A, Garcia-Eroles, L, Massons, JB, Oliveres, M, Comes, E. Predictive factors of early seizures after acute cerebrovascular disease. Stroke 1997; 28: 1590–4.Google Scholar
Reith, J, Jørgensen, HS, Nakayama, H, Raaschou, HO, Olsen, TS. Seizures in acute stroke: the Copenhagen Stroke Study. Stroke 1997; 28: 1585–9.Google Scholar
Giroud, M, Gras, P, Fayolle, H, et al. Early seizures after stroke: a study of 1,640 cases. Epilepsia 1994; 35: 959–64.Google Scholar
Olsen, TS. Post-stroke epilepsy. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2001; 3: 340–4. Review.Google Scholar
Benbir, G, Ince, B, Bozluolcay, M. The epidemiology of post-stroke epilepsy according to stroke sub-types. Acta Neurol Scand 2006; 114: 812.Google Scholar
Myint, PK, Staufenberg, EF, Sabanathan, K. Post-stroke seizure and post-stroke epilepsy. Postgrad Med J 2006; 82: 568–72.Google Scholar
Conrad, J, Pawlowski, M, Dogan, M, et al. Seizures after cerebrovascular events: risk factors and clinical features. Seizure 2013; 22: 275–82.Google Scholar
Cordonnier, C, Hénon, H, Derambure, P, Pasquier, F, Leys, D. Influence of pre-existing dementia on the risk of post-stroke epileptic seizures. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2005; 76: 1649–53.Google Scholar
De Reuck, J, Proot, P, Van Maele, G. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease as a risk factor for stroke-related seizures. Eur J Neurol 2007; 14: 989–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sun, DA, Sombati, S, DeLorenzo, RJ. Glutamate injury-induced epileptogenesis in hippocampal neurons: an in vitro model of stroke-induced “epilepsy.” Stroke 2001; 32: 2344–50.Google Scholar
Stroemer, RP, Kent, TA, Hulsebosch, CE. Neocortical neural sprouting, synaptogenesis, and behavioral recovery after neocortical infarction in rats. Stroke 1995; 26: 2135–44.Google Scholar
Gilad, R, Lampl, Y, Eschel, Y, Sadeh, M. Antiepileptic treatment in patients with early postischemic stroke seizures: a retrospective study. Cerebrovas Dis 2001; 12: 3943.Google Scholar
Holtkamp, M, Beghi, E, Benninger, F, et al. European Stroke Organisation guidelines for the management of post-stroke seizures and epilepsy. ESJ 2017; 2: 103–15.Google Scholar
Ryvlin, P, Montavont, A, Nighoghossian, N. Optimizing therapy of seizures in stroke patients. Neurology 2006; 67: S3–9.Google Scholar
Gilad, R. Management of seizures following a stroke: what are the options? Drugs Aging 2012; 29: 533–8.Google Scholar
Alvarez-Sabín, J, Montaner, J, Padró, L, et al. Gabapentin in late-onset poststroke seizures. Neurology 2002; 59: 1991–3.Google Scholar
Gilad, R, Sadeh, M, Rapoport, A, et al. Monotherapy of lamotrigine versus carbamazepine in patients with poststroke seizure. Clin Neuropharmacol 2007; 30: 189–95.Google Scholar
Hackett, ML, Yapa, C, Parag, V, Anderson, CS. Frequency of depression after stroke: a systematic review of observational studies. Stroke 2005; 36: 1330–4.Google Scholar
Paolucci, S, Gandolfo, C, Provinciali, L, Torta, R, Toso, V. The Italian multicenter observational study on post-stroke depression (DESTRO). J Neurol 2006; 253: 556–62.Google Scholar
Morris, PL, Robinson, RG, Samuels, J. Depression, introversion and mortality following stroke. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 1993; 27: 443–9.Google Scholar
Yuan, HW, Wang, CX, Zhang, N, et al. Poststroke depression and risk of recurrent stroke at 1 year in a Chinese cohort study. PLoS One 2012; 7: e46906.Google Scholar
Gainotti, G, Marra, C. Determinants and consequences of post-stroke depression. Curr Opin Neurol 2002; 15: 85–9.Google Scholar
Narushima, K, Kosier, JT, Robinson, RG. A reappraisal of poststroke depression, intra- and inter-hemispheric lesion location using meta-analysis. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2003; 15: 422–30.Google Scholar
Bhogal, SK, Teasell, R, Foley, N, Speechley, M. Lesion location and poststroke depression: systematic review of the methodological limitations in the literature. Stroke 2004; 35: 794802.Google Scholar
Gaete, JM, Bogousslavsky, J. Post-stroke depression. Expert Rev Neurother 2008; 8: 7592.Google Scholar
Brodaty, H, Withball, A, Sachdev, PS. Rates of depression at 3 and 15 months poststroke and their relationship with cognitive decline: the Sydney Stroke Study. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2007; 15: 477–86.Google Scholar
Shi, Y, Yang, D, Zeng, Y, Wu, W. Risk factors for post-stroke depression: a meta-analysis. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 2017; 9: 218.Google Scholar
Robinson, RG, Jorge, RE, Moser, DJ, et al. Escitalopram and problem-solving therapy for prevention of poststroke depression: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008; 299: 2391–400.Google Scholar
Ried, LD, Jia, H, Feng, H, et al. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment and depression are associated with poststroke mortality. Ann Pharmacother 2011; 45: 888–97.Google Scholar
Sun, Y, Liang, Y, Jiao, Y, et al. Comparative efficacy and acceptability of antidepressant treatment in poststroke depression: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. BMJ Open 2017; 7: e016499.Google Scholar
Román, GC, Tatemichi, TK, Erkinjuntti, T, et al. Vascular dementia: diagnostic criteria for research studies. Report of the NINDS-AIREN International Workshop. Neurology 1993; 43: 250–60.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). 4th edn. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.Google Scholar
Wetterling, T, Kanitz, RD, Borgis, KJ. Comparison of different diagnostic criteria for vascular dementia (ADDTC, DSM-IV, ICD-10, NINDS-AIREN). Stroke 1996; 27: 30–6.Google Scholar
Dubois, MF, Hébert, R. The incidence of vascular dementia in Canada: a comparison with Europe and East Asia. Neuroepidemiology 2001; 20: 179–87.Google Scholar
Mijajlović, MD, Pavlović, A, Brainin, M, et al. Post-stroke dementia – a comprehensive review. BMC Med 2017; 15: 11.Google Scholar
Hénon, H, Durieu, I, Guerouaou, D, et al. Poststroke dementia: incidence and relationship to prestroke cognitive decline. Neurology 2001; 57: 1216–22.Google Scholar
Ince, PG, Fernando, MS. Neuropathology of vascular cognitive impairment and vascular dementia. Int Psychogeriatr 2003; 15: 71–5.Google Scholar
Jellinger, KA. Pathology and pathophysiology of vascular cognitive impairment. A critical update. Panminerva Med 2004; 46: 217–21.Google Scholar
Ince, PG, Fernando, MS. Neuropathology of vascular cognitive impairment and vascular dementia. Int Psychogeriatr 2003; 15: 71–5.Google Scholar
Skoog, I. Status of risk factors for vascular dementia. Neuroepidemiology 1998; 17: 29.Google Scholar
Bornstein, NM, Gur, AY, Treves, TA, et al. Do silent brain infarctions predict the development of dementia after first ischemic stroke? Stroke 1996; 27: 904–5.Google Scholar
Longstreth, WT, Jr., Manolio, TA, Arnold, A, et al. Clinical correlates of white matter findings on cranial magnetic resonance imaging of 3 301 elderly people. The Cardiovascular Health Study. Stroke 1996; 27: 1274–82.Google Scholar
Gur, AY, Neufeld, MY, Treves, TA, et al. EEG as predictor of dementia following first ischemic stroke. Acta Neurol Scand 1994; 90: 263–5.Google Scholar
Snowdon, DA, Greiner, LH, Mortimer, JA, et al. Brain infarction and the clinical expression of Alzheimer disease. The Nun Study. JAMA 1997; 277: 813–17.Google Scholar
Kavirajan, H, Schneider, LS. Efficacy and adverse effects of cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine in vascular dementia: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6: 782–92.Google Scholar
Ingles, JL, Eskes, GA, Phillips, SJ. Fatigue after stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999; 80: 173–8.Google Scholar
Staub, F, Bogousslavsky, J. Fatigue after stroke: a major but neglected issue. Cerebrovasc Dis 2001; 12: 7581.Google Scholar
Fisk, JD, Pontefract, A, Ritvo, PG, Archibald, CJ, Murray, TJ. The impact of fatigue on patients with multiple sclerosis. Can J Neurol Sci 1994; 21: 914.Google Scholar
Rose, L, Pugh, LC, Lears, K, Gordon, DL. The fatigue experience: persons with HIV infection. J Adv Nurs 1998; 28: 295304.Google Scholar
Riemsma, RP, Rasker, JJ, Taal, E, et al. Fatigue in rheumatoid arthritis: the role of self-efficacy and problematic social support. Br J Rheumatol 1998; 37: 1042–6.Google Scholar
Zwarts, MJ, Bleijenberg, G, van Engelen, BG. Clinical neurophysiology of fatigue. Clin Neurophysiol 2008; 119: 210.Google Scholar
van der Werf, SP, van den Broek, HL, Anten, HW, Bleijenberg, G. Experience of severe fatigue long after stroke and its relation to depressive symptoms and disease characteristics. Eur Neurol 2001; 45: 2833.Google Scholar
Kutlubaev, MA, Duncan, FH, Mead, GE. Biological correlates of post-stroke fatigue: a systematic review. Acta Neurol Scand 2012; 125: 219–27.Google Scholar
Glader, EL, Stegmayr, B, Asplund, K. Poststroke fatigue: a 2-year follow-up study of stroke patients in Sweden. Stroke 2002; 33: 1327–33.Google Scholar
Naess, H, Lunde, L, Brogger, J, Waje-Andreassen, U. Fatigue among stroke patients on long-term follow-up. The Bergen Stroke Study. J Neurol Sci 2012; 312: 138–41.Google Scholar

References

Guiraud, V, Amor, MB, Mas, JL, et al. Triggers of ischemic stroke: a systematic review. Stroke 2010; 41: 2669–77.Google Scholar
Grau, AJ, Urbanek, C, Palm, F. Common infections and the risk of stroke. Nat Rev Neurol 2010; 6: 681–94.Google Scholar
Vlachopoulos, CV, Terentes-Printzios, DG, Aznaouridis, KA, et al. Association between pneumococcal vaccination and cardivascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Eur J Prev Cardiol 2015; 22: 1185–99.Google Scholar
Lee, KR, Bae, JH, Hwang, IC, et al. Effect of influenza vaccination on risk of stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroepidemiology 2017; 48: 103–10.Google Scholar
Dahal, U, Sharma, D, Dahal, K. An unsettled debate about the potential role of infection in pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. J Clin Med Res 2017; 9: 547–54.Google Scholar
Elkind, MS, Cole, JW. Do common infections cause stroke? Semin Neurol 2006; 26: 8899.Google Scholar
Grau, AJ, Marquardt, L, Lichy, C. The effect of infections and vaccinations on stroke risk. Expert Rev Neurother 2006; 6: 175–83.Google Scholar
Grayston, JT, Kronmal, RA, Jackson, LA, et al. Azithromycin for the secondary prevention of coronary events. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 1637–45.Google Scholar
O'Connor, CM, Dunne, MW, Pfeffer, MA, et al. Azithromycin for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease events: the wizard study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003; 290: 1459–66.Google Scholar
Elkind, MS, Ramakrishnan, P, Moon, YP, et al. Infectious burden and risk of stroke: the northern Manhattan study. Arch Neurol 2010; 67: 33–8.Google Scholar
Palm, F, Pussinen, P, Aigner, A, et al. Association between infectious burden, socioeconomic status, and ischemic stroke. Atherosclerosis 2016; 254: 117–23.Google Scholar
Cahill, TJ, Baddour, LM, Habib, G, et al. Challenges in infective endocarditis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017; 69: 325–44.Google Scholar
Siciliano, RF, Randi, BA, Gualandro, DM, et al. Early-onset prosthetic valve endocarditis definition revisited: prospective study and literature review. Int J Infect Dis 2017; 67: 36.Google Scholar
Garcia-Cabrera, E, Fernandez-Hidalgo, N, Almirante, B, et al. Neurological complications of infective endocarditis: risk factors, outcome, and impact of cardiac surgery: a multicenter observational study. Circulation 2013; 127: 2272–84.Google Scholar
Snygg-Martin, U, Gustafsson, L, Rosengren, L, et al. Cerebrovascular complications in patients with left-sided infective endocarditis are common: a prospective study using magnetic resonance imaging and neurochemical brain damage markers. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 2330.Google Scholar
Cahill, TJ, Prendergast, BD. Infective endocarditis. Lancet 2016; 387: 882–93.Google Scholar
Murdoch, DR, Corey, GR, Hoen, B, et al. Clinical presentation, etiology, and outcome of infective endocarditis in the 21st century: the international collaboration on endocarditis-prospective cohort study. Arch Intern Med 2009; 169: 463–73.Google Scholar
Baddour, LM, Wilson, WR, Bayer, AS, et al. Infective endocarditis in adults: diagnosis, antimicrobial therapy, and management of complications. A scientific statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2015; 132: 1435–86.Google Scholar
Habib, G, Lancellotti, P, Antunes, MJ, et al. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of infective endocarditis: the task force for the Management of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by: European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS), the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM). Eur Heart J 2015; 36: 3075–128.Google Scholar
Barsic, B, Dickerman, S, Krajinovic, V, et al. Influence of the timing of cardiac surgery on the outcome of patients with infective endocarditis and stroke. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56: 209–17.Google Scholar
Carod-Artal, FJ. Chagas cardiomyopathy and ischemic stroke. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2006; 4: 119–30.Google Scholar
Schut, ES, Lucas, MJ, Brouwer, MC, et al. Cerebral infarction in adults with bacterial meningitis. Neurocrit Care 2012; 16: 421–7.Google Scholar
Bodilsen, J, Dalagar-Pedersen, M, Schønheyder, AC, et al. Stroke in community-acquired bacterial meningitis: a Danish population-based study. Int J Infect Dis 2014; 20: 1822.Google Scholar
Takeoka, M, Takahashi, T. Infectious and inflammatory disorders of the circulatory system and stroke in childhood. Curr Opin Neurol 2002; 15: 159–64.Google Scholar
Brancusi, F, Farrar, J, Heemskerk, D. Tuberculous meningitis in adults: a review of a decade of developments focusing on prognostic factors for outcome. Future Microbiol 2012; 7: 1101–16.Google Scholar
Ecevit, IZ, Clancy, CJ, Schmalfuss, IM, Nguyen, MH. The poor prognosis of central nervous system cryptococcosis among nonimmunosuppressed patients: a call for better disease recognition and evaluation of adjuncts to antifungal therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42: 1443–7.Google Scholar
Leite, AG, Vidal, JE, Bonasser Filho, F, Nogueira, RS, Oliveira, AC. Cerebral infarction related to cryptococcal meningitis in an HIV-infected patient: case report and literature review. Braz J Infect Dis 2004; 8: 175–9.Google Scholar
Williams, PL, Johnson, R, Pappagianis, D, et al. Vasculitic and encephalitic complications associated with coccidioides immitis infection of the central nervous system in humans: report of 10 cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 1992; 14: 673–82.Google Scholar
Mathisen, G, Shelub, A, Truong, J, Wigen, C. Coccidioidal meningitis: clinical presentation and management in the fluconazole era. Medicine 2010; 89: 251–84.Google Scholar
Flint, AC, Liberato, BB, Anziska, Y, Schantz-Dunn, J, Wright, CB. Meningovascular syphilis as a cause of basilar artery stenosis. Neurology 2005; 64: 391–2.Google Scholar
Nakane, H, Okada, Y, Ibayashi, S, Sadoshima, S, Fujishima, M. Brain infarction caused by syphilitic aortic aneurysm. A case report. Angiology 1996; 47: 911–17.Google Scholar
Garkowski, A, Zajkowska, J, Zajkowska, A, et al. Cerebrovascular manifestations of Lyme neuroborreliosis – a systematic review of published cases frontiers in neurology. Front Neurol 2017; 8: 146.Google Scholar
Marquez, JM, Arauz, A. Cerebrovascular complications of neurocysticercosis. Neurologist 2012; 18: 1722.Google Scholar
Nagel, MA, Jones, D, Wyborny, A. Varicella zoster virus vasculopathy: the expanding clinical spectrum and pathogenesis. J Neuroimmunol 2017; 308: 112–17.Google Scholar
Singer, EJ, Valdes-Sueiras, M, Commins, DL, Yong, W, Carlson, M. HIV stroke risk: evidence and implications. Ther Adv Chronic Dis 2013; 4: 6170.Google Scholar
Tipping, B, de Villiers, L, Wainwright, H, Candy, S, Bryer, A. Stroke in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2007; 78: 1320–4.Google Scholar
Connor, MD, Lammie, GA, Bell, JE, et al. Cerebral infarction in adult AIDS patients: observations from the Edinburgh HIV Autopsy Cohort. Stroke 2000; 31: 2117–26.Google Scholar
Ortiz, G, Koch, S, Romano, JG, Forteza, AM, Rabinstein, AA. Mechanisms of ischemic stroke in HIV-infected patients. Neurology 2007; 68: 1257–61.Google Scholar
Salgado, AV, Furlan, AJ, Keys, TF. Mycotic aneurysm, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and indications for cerebral angiography in infective endocarditis. Stroke 1987; 18: 1057–60.Google Scholar
Ho, CL, Deruytter, MJ. CNS aspergillosis with mycotic aneurysm, cerebral granuloma and infarction. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2004; 146: 851–6.Google Scholar
Huang, TE, Chou, SM. Occlusive hypertrophic arteritis as the cause of discrete necrosis in CNS toxoplasmosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Hum Pathol 1988; 19: 1210–14.Google Scholar
Idro, R, Jenkins, NE, Newton, CR. Pathogenesis, clinical features, and neurological outcome of cerebral malaria. Lancet Neurol 2005; 4: 827–40.Google Scholar
Wassmer, SC, Taylor, TE, Rathod, PK, et al. Investigating the pathogenesis of severe malaria: a multidisciplinary and cross-geographical approach. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015; 93: 4256.Google Scholar
Westendorp, WF, Nederkoorn, PJ, Vermeij, JD, Dijkgraaf, MG, van de Beek, D. Post-stroke infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Neurol 2011; 11: 110.Google Scholar
Gleeson, K, Eggli, DF, Maxwell, SL. Quantitative aspiration during sleep in normal subjects. Chest 1997; 111: 1266–72.Google Scholar
DiBardino, DM, Wunderink, RG. Aspiration pneumonia: a review of modern trends. J Crit Care 2015; 30: 40–8.Google Scholar
Kamel, H, Iadecola, C. Brain-immune interactions and ischemic stroke: clinical implications. Arch Neurol 2012; 69: 576–81.Google Scholar
Dirnagl, U, Klehmet, J, Braun, JS, et al. Stroke-induced immunodepression: experimental evidence and clinical relevance. Stroke 2007; 38: 770–3.Google Scholar
European Stroke Organisation (ESO) Executive Committee; ESO Writing Committee. Guidelines for management of ischaemic stroke and transient ischaemic attack 2008. Cerebrovasc Dis 2008; 25: 457507.Google Scholar
Meisel, C, Prass, K, Braun, J, et al. Preventive antibacterial treatment improves the general medical and neurological outcome in a mouse model of stroke. Stroke 2004; 35: 26.Google Scholar
Westendorp, WF, Vermeij, J, Zock, E, et al. The Preventive Antibiotics in Stroke Study (PASS): a pragmatic randomised open-label masked endpoint clinical trial. Lancet 2015; 385: 1519–26.Google Scholar
Kalra, L, Irshad, S, Hodsoll, J, et al. Prophylactic antibiotics after acute stroke for reducing pneumonia in patients with dysphagia (STROKE-INF): a prospective, cluster-randomised, open-label, masked endpoint, controlled clinical trial. Lancet 2015; 386: 1835–44.Google Scholar
Li, JS, Sexton, DJ, Mick, N, et al. Proposed modifications to the Duke criteria for the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30: 633–8.Google Scholar
Selton-Suty, C, Célard, M, Le Moing, V, et al. Preeminence of Staphylococcus aureus in infective endocarditis: a 1-year population based study. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 54: 1230–9.Google Scholar
Nakatani, S, Mitsutake, K, Hozumi, T, et al. Current characteristics of infective endocarditis in Japan. Circ J 2003; 67: 901–5.Google Scholar

References

Grau, AJ, Weimar, C, Buggle, F, et al. Risk factors, outcome, and treatment in subtypes of ischemic stroke: the German stroke data bank. Stroke 2001; 32(11): 2559–66.Google Scholar
Amarenco, P, Lavallee, PC, Labreuche, J, et al. One-year risk of stroke after transient ischemic attack or minor stroke. N Engl J Med 2016; 374(16): 1533–42.Google Scholar
Lovett, JK, Coull, AJ, Rothwell, PM. Early risk of recurrence by subtype of ischemic stroke in population-based incidence studies. Neurology 2004; 62(4): 569–73.Google Scholar
Knoflach, M, Lang, W, Seyfang, L, et al. Predictive value of ABCD2 and ABCD3-I scores in TIA and minor stroke in the stroke unit setting. Neurology 2016; 87(9): 861–9.Google Scholar
Rothwell, PM, Giles, MF, Chandratheva, A, et al. Effect of urgent treatment of transient ischaemic attack and minor stroke on early recurrent stroke (EXPRESS study): a prospective population-based sequential comparison. Lancet 2007; 370(9596): 1432–42.Google Scholar
Yusuf, S, Teo, KK, Pogue, J, et al. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med 2008; 358(15): 1547–59.Google Scholar
Rashid, P, Leonardi-Bee, J, Bath, P. Blood pressure reduction and secondary prevention of stroke and other vascular events. A systematic review. Stroke 2003; 34(11): 2741–9.Google Scholar
Katsanos, AH, Filippatou, A, Manios, E, et al. Blood pressure reduction and secondary stroke prevention: a systematic review and metaregression analysis of randomized clinical trials. Hypertension 2017; 69(1): 171–9.Google Scholar
Flather, MD, Yusuf, S, Kober, L, et al. Long-term ACE-inhibitor therapy in patients with heart failure or left-ventricular dysfunction: a systematic overview of data from individual patients. Lancet 2000; 355(9215): 1575–81.Google Scholar
Progress Collaborative Group. Randomised trial of a perindopril-based blood-pressure lowering regimen among 6,105 individuals with previous stroke or transient ischaemic attack. Lancet 2001; 358(9287): 1033–41.Google Scholar
Schrader, J, Luders, S, Kulschewski, A, et al. Morbidity and mortality after stroke, eprosartan compared with nitrendipine for secondary prevention: principal results of a prospective randomized controlled study (MOSES). Stroke 2005; 36(6): 1218–26.Google Scholar
Yusuf, S, Diener, HC, Sacco, RL, et al. Telmisartan to prevent recurrent stroke and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2008; 359(12): 1225–37.Google Scholar
Elkind, MS, Luna, JM, McClure, LA, et al. C-reactive protein as a prognostic marker after lacunar stroke: levels of inflammatory markers in the treatment of stroke study. Stroke 2014; 45(3): 707–16.Google Scholar
Amarenco, P, Labreuche, J, Lavallee, P, Touboul, PJ. Statins in stroke prevention and carotid atherosclerosis: systematic review and up-to-date meta-analysis. Stroke 2004; 35(12): 2902–9.Google Scholar
Jellinger, PS, Handelsman, Y, Rosenblit, PD, et al. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology Guidelines for Management of Dyslipidemia and Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease. Endocrine Practice 2017; 23(2): 187.Google Scholar
Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002; 360(9326): 722.Google Scholar
Collins, R, Armitage, J, Parish, S, Sleight, P, Peto, R; Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. Effects of cholesterol-lowering with simvastatin on stroke and other major vascular events in 20 536 people with cerebrovascular disease or other high-risk conditions. Lancet 2004; 363(9411): 757–67.Google Scholar
The Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels (SPARCL) Investigators. High-dose atorvastatin after stroke or transient ischemic attack. N Engl J Med 2006; 355(6): 549–59.Google Scholar
Milionis, H, Barkas, F, Ntaios, G, et al. Proprotein convertase subtilisin kexin 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors to treat hypercholesterolemia: effect on stroke risk. Eur J Intern Med 2016; 34: 54–7.Google Scholar
Blanco, M, Nombela, F, Castellanos, M, et al. Statin treatment withdrawal in ischemic stroke: a controlled randomized study. Neurology 2007; 69(9): 904–10.Google Scholar
Ray, KK, Seshasai, SR, Wijesuriya, S, et al. Effect of intensive control of glucose on cardiovascular outcomes and death in patients with diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet 2009; 373(9677): 1765–72.Google Scholar
Lee, M, Saver, JL, Liao, HW, Lin, CH, Ovbiagele, B. Pioglitazone for secondary stroke prevention: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Stroke 2017; 48(2): 388–93.Google Scholar
Zinman, B, Inzucchi, SE, Lachin, JM, et al. Empagliflozin and cerebrovascular events in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus at high cardiovascular risk. Stroke 2017; 48(5): 1218–25.Google Scholar
Toole, JF, Malinow, MR, Chambless, LE, et al. Lowering homocysteine in patients with ischemic stroke to prevent recurrent stroke, myocardial infarction, and death: the Vitamin Intervention for Stroke Prevention (VISP) randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004; 291(5): 565–75.Google Scholar
Lonn, E, Yusuf, S, Arnold, MJ, et al. Homocysteine lowering with folic acid and B vitamins in vascular disease. N Engl J Med 2006; 354(15): 1567–77.Google Scholar
Spence, JD, Yi, Q, Hankey, GJ. B vitamins in stroke prevention: time to reconsider. Lancet Neurol 2017; 16(9): 750–60.Google Scholar
Viscoli, CM, Brass, LM, Kernan, WN, et al. A clinical trial of estrogen-replacement therapy after ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2001; 345(17): 1243–9.Google Scholar
Antiplatelet Trialists Collaboration. Collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy – I: Prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke by prolonged antiplatelet therapy in various categories of patients. BMJ 1994; 308(6921): 81106.Google Scholar
Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration. Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ 2002; 324(7329): 7186.Google Scholar
Born, G, Patrono, C. Antiplatelet drugs. Br J Pharmacol 2006; 147(Suppl 1): S241–51.Google Scholar
Algra, A, van Gijn, J. Cumulative meta-analysis of aspirin efficacy after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999; 65(2): 255.Google Scholar
Rothwell, PM, Algra, A, Chen, Z, et al. Effects of aspirin on risk and severity of early recurrent stroke after transient ischaemic attack and ischaemic stroke: time-course analysis of randomised trials. Lancet 2016; 388(10042): 365–75.Google Scholar
Patrono, C, Garcia Rodriguez, LA, Landolfi, R, Baigent, C. Low-dose aspirin for the prevention of atherothrombosis. N Engl J Med 2005; 353(22): 2373–83.Google Scholar
Topol, E, Easton, D, Harrington, R, et al. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, international trial of the oral IIb/IIIa antagonist lotrafiban in coronary and cerebrovascular disease. Circulation 2003; 108(4): 399406.Google Scholar
Yusuf, S, Zhao, F, Mehta, SR, et al. Effects of clopidogrel in addition to aspirin in patients with acute coronary syndromes without ST-segment elevation. N Engl J Med 2001; 345(7): 494502.Google Scholar
Li, L, Geraghty, OC, Mehta, Z, Rothwell, PM, Oxford Vascular Study. Age-specific risks, severity, time course, and outcome of bleeding on long-term antiplatelet treatment after vascular events: a population-based cohort study. Lancet 2017; 390(10093): 490–9.Google Scholar
CAPRIE Steering Committee. A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). Lancet 1996; 348(9038): 1329–39.Google Scholar
Diener, H, Bogousslavsky, J, Brass, L, et al. Aspirin and clopidogrel compared with clopidogrel alone after recent ischaemic stroke or transient ischaemic attack in high-risk patients (MATCH): randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 364(9431): 331–7.Google Scholar
Bhatt, DL, Fox, KA, Hacke, W, et al. Clopidogrel and aspirin versus aspirin alone for the prevention of atherothrombotic events. N Engl J Med 2006; 354(16): 1706–17.Google Scholar
Bhatt, DL, Flather, MD, Hacke, W, et al. Patients with prior myocardial infarction, stroke, or symptomatic peripheral arterial disease in the CHARISMA trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49(19): 1982–8.Google Scholar
Diener, HC, Cuhna, L, Forbes, C, et al. European Stroke Prevention Study 2: dipyridamole and acetylsalicyclic acid in the secondary prevention of stroke. J Neurol Sci 1996; 143(1–2): 113.Google Scholar
Diener, HC, Darius, H, Bertrand-Hardy, JM, Humphreys, M. Cardiac safety in the European Stroke Prevention Study 2 (ESPS2). Int J Clin Pract 2001; 55(3): 162–3.Google Scholar
The ESPRIT Study Group. Aspirin plus dipyridamole versus aspirin alone after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin (ESPRIT): randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 367(9523): 1665–73.Google Scholar
Diener, HC, Sacco, R, Yusuf, S. Rationale, design and baseline data of a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial comparing two antithrombotic regimens (a fixed-dose combination of extended-release dipyridamole plus ASA with clopidogrel) and telmisartan versus placebo in patients with strokes: the Prevention Regimen for Effectively Avoiding Second Strokes Trial (PRoFESS). Cerebrovasc Dis 2007; 23(5–6): 368–80.Google Scholar
Johnston, SC, Amarenco, P, Albers, GW, et al. Ticagrelor versus aspirin in acute stroke or transient ischemic attack. N Engl J Med 2016; 375(1): 3543.Google Scholar
Hankey, GJ. Stroke. Lancet 2017; 389(10069): 641–54.Google Scholar
Benavente, OR, Hart, RG, McClure, LA, et al. Effects of clopidogrel added to aspirin in patients with recent lacunar stroke. N Engl J Med 2012; 367(9): 817–25.Google Scholar
Wang, Y, Wang, Y, Zhao, X, et al. Clopidogrel with aspirin in acute minor stroke or transient ischemic attack. N Engl J Med 2013; 369(1): 1119.Google Scholar
Kirchhof, P, Benussi, S, Kotecha, D, et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with EACTS. Eur Heart J 2016; 37(38): 2893–962.Google Scholar
EAFT Trial Investigators. Secondary prevention in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation after transient ischaemic attack or minor stroke. EAFT (European Atrial Fibrillation Trial) Study Group. Lancet 1993; 342(8882): 1255–62.Google Scholar
Saxena, R, Koudstaal, PJ. Anticoagulants versus antiplatelet therapy for preventing stroke in patients with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation and a history of stroke or transient ischemic attack. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2004; 4: CD000187.Google Scholar
Hart, R, Pearce, L, Miller, V, et al. Cardioembolic vs. noncardioembolic strokes in atrial fibrillation: frequency and effect of antithrombotic agents in the stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation studies. Cerebrovasc Dis 2000; 10(1): 3943.Google Scholar
Hylek, EM, Evans-Molina, C, Shea, C, Henault, LE, Regan, S. Major hemorrhage and tolerability of warfarin in the first year of therapy among elderly patients with atrial fibrillation. Circulation 2007; 115(21): 2689–96.Google Scholar
Connolly, S, Pogue, J, Hart, R, et al. Clopidogrel plus aspirin versus oral anticoagulation for atrial fibrillation in the Atrial fibrillation Clopidogrel Trial with Irbesartan for prevention of Vascular Events (ACTIVE W): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 367(9526): 1903–12.Google Scholar
Connolly, SJ, Ezekowitz, MD, Yusuf, S, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2009; 361(12): 1139–51.Google Scholar
Patel, MR, Mahaffey, KW, Garg, J, et al. Rivaroxaban versus warfarin in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2011; 365(10): 883–91.Google Scholar
Granger, CB, Alexander, JH, McMurray, JJ, et al. Apixaban versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2011; 365(11): 981–92.Google Scholar
Connolly, SJ, Eikelboom, J, Joyner, C, et al. Apixaban in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2011; 364(9): 806–17.Google Scholar
Giugliano, RP, Ruff, CT, Braunwald, E, et al. Edoxaban versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2013; 369(22): 2093–104.Google Scholar
Ntaios, G, Papavasileiou, V, Diener, HC, Makaritsis, K, Michel, P. Nonvitamin-K-antagonist oral anticoagulants versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation and previous stroke or transient ischemic attack: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Int J Stroke 2017; 12(6): 589–96.Google Scholar
Homma, S, Thompson, JL, Pullicino, PM, et al. Warfarin and aspirin in patients with heart failure and sinus rhythm. N Engl J Med 2012; 366(20): 1859–69.Google Scholar
Paciaroni, M, Agnelli, G, Caso, V, et al. Prediction of early recurrent thromboembolic event and major bleeding in patients with acute stroke and atrial fibrillation by a risk stratification schema: the ALESSA Score Study. Stroke 2017; 48(3): 726–32.Google Scholar
Paciaroni, M, Agnelli, G, Ageno, W, Caso, V. Timing of anticoagulation therapy in patients with acute ischaemic stroke and atrial fibrillation. Thromb Haemost 2016; 116(3): 410–16.Google Scholar
Arihiro, S, Todo, K, Koga, M, et al. Three-month risk-benefit profile of anticoagulation after stroke with atrial fibrillation: the SAMURAI-Nonvalvular Atrial Fibrillation (NVAF) study. Int J Stroke 2016; 11(5): 565–74.Google Scholar
Hagen, PT, Scholz, DG, Edwards, WD. Incidence and size of patent foramen ovale during the first 10 decades of life: an autopsy study of 965 normal hearts. Mayo Clin Proc 1984; 59(1): 1720.Google Scholar
Furlan, AJ, Reisman, M, Massaro, J, et al. Closure or medical therapy for cryptogenic stroke with patent foramen ovale. N Engl J Med 2012; 366(11): 991–9.Google Scholar
Carroll, JD, Saver, JL, Thaler, DE, et al. Closure of patent foramen ovale versus medical therapy after cryptogenic stroke. N Engl J Med 2013; 368(12): 1092–100.Google Scholar
Meier, B, Kalesan, B, Mattle, HP, et al. Percutaneous closure of patent foramen ovale in cryptogenic embolism. N Engl J Med 2013; 368(12): 1083–91.Google Scholar
Mas, JL, Derumeaux, G, Guillon, B, et al. Patent foramen ovale closure or anticoagulation vs. antiplatelets after stroke. N Engl J Med 2017; 377(11): 1011–21.Google Scholar
Sondergaard, L, Kasner, SE, Rhodes, JF, et al. Patent foramen ovale closure or antiplatelet therapy for cryptogenic stroke. N Engl J Med 2017; 377(11): 1033–42.Google Scholar
Saver, JL, Carroll, JD, Thaler, DE, et al. Long-term outcomes of patent foramen ovale closure or medical therapy after stroke. N Engl J Med 2017; 377(11): 1022–32.Google Scholar
The Stroke Prevention in Reversible Ischemia Trial (SPIRIT) Study Group. A randomized trial of anticoagulants versus aspirin after cerebral ischemia of presumed arterial origin. Ann Neurol 1997; 42(6): 857–65.Google Scholar
Mohr, JP, Thompson, JL, Lazar, RM, et al. A comparison of warfarin and aspirin for the prevention of recurrent ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1444–51.Google Scholar
The ESPRIT Study Group. Medium intensity oral anticoagulants versus aspirin after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin (ESPRIT): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6(2): 115–24.Google Scholar
Algra, A, De Schryver, EL, van Gijn, J, Kappelle, LJ, Koudstaal, PJ. Oral anticoagulants versus antiplatelet therapy for preventing further vascular events after transient ischaemic attack or minor stroke of presumed arterial origin. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; 3: CD001342.Google Scholar
Levine, SR, Brey, RL, Tilley, BC, et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and subsequent thrombo-occlusive events in patients with ischemic stroke. JAMA 2004; 291(5): 576–84.Google Scholar
CADISS Trial Investigators, Markus, HS, Hayter, E, et al. Antiplatelet treatment compared with anticoagulation treatment for cervical artery dissection (CADISS): a randomised trial. Lancet Neurol 2015; 14(4): 361–7.Google Scholar
Lyrer, P, Engelter, S. Antithrombotic drugs for carotid artery dissection. Stroke 2004; 35(2): 613–14.Google Scholar
Caprio, FZ, Bernstein, RA, Alberts, MJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of novel oral anticoagulants in patients with cervical artery dissections. Cerebrovasc Dis 2014; 38(4): 2453.Google Scholar
Barnett, HJ, Taylor, DW, Eliasziw, M, et al. Benefit of carotid endarterectomy in patients with symptomatic moderate or severe stenosis. N Engl J Med 1998; 339(20): 1415–25.Google Scholar
European Carotid Surgery Trialists' Collaborative Group. Randomised trial of endarterectomy for recently symptomatic carotid stenosis: final results of the MRC European Carotid Surgery Trial (ECST). Lancet 1998; 351(9113): 1379–87.Google Scholar
European Carotid Surgery Trialists' Collaborative Group. MRC European carotid surgery trial: interim results for symptomatic patients with severe carotid stenosis and with mild carotid stenosis. Lancet 1991; 337(8752): 1235–43.Google Scholar
Ferguson, GG, Eliasziw, M, Barr, HWK, et al. The North American symptomatic carotid endarterectomy trial: surgical result in 1 415 patients. Stroke 1999; 30(9): 1751–8.Google Scholar
Rothwell, PM, Warlow, CP, on behalf of the European Carotid Surgery Trialists’ Collaborative Group. Prediction on benefit from carotid endarterectomy in individual patients: a risk-modelling study. Lancet 1999; 353(9170): 2105–10.Google Scholar
Rothwell, PM, Eliasziw, M, Gutnikov, SA, et al. Analysis of pooled data from the randomised controlled trials of endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid stenosis. Lancet 2003; 361(9352): 107–16.Google Scholar
Rothwell, P, Eliasziw, M, Gutnikov, S, Warlow, C, Barnett, H, Carotid Endarterectomy Trialists’ Collaboration. Endarterectomy for symptomatic carotid stenosis in relation to clinical subgroups and timing of surgery. Lancet 2004; 363(9413): 915–24.Google Scholar
Chaturvedi, S, Bruno, A, Feasby, T, et al. Carotid endarterectomy – an evidence-based review: report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2005; 65(6): 794801.Google Scholar
Ringleb, PA, Allenberg, J, Bruckmann, H, et al. 30 day results from the SPACE trial of stent-protected angioplasty versus carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients: a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2006; 368(9543): 1239–47.Google Scholar
Stingele, R, Berger, J, Alfke, K, et al. Clinical and angiographic risk factors for stroke and death within 30 days after carotid endarterectomy and stent-protected angioplasty: a subanalysis of the SPACE study. Lancet Neurol 2008; 7(3): 216–22.Google Scholar
Mas, JL, Chatellier, G, Beyssen, B, et al. Endarterectomy versus stenting in patients with symptomatic severe carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med 2006; 355(16): 1660–71.Google Scholar
Brott, TG, Hobson, RW, 2nd, Howard, G, et al. Stenting versus endarterectomy for treatment of carotid-artery stenosis. N Engl J Med 2010; 363(1): 1123.Google Scholar
Markus, HS, Larsson, SC, Kuker, W, et al. Stenting for symptomatic vertebral artery stenosis: the Vertebral Artery Ischaemia Stenting Trial. Neurology 2017; 89(12): 1229–36.Google Scholar
Bonati, LH, Lyrer, P, Ederle, J, Featherstone, R, Brown, MM. Percutaneous transluminal balloon angioplasty and stenting for carotid artery stenosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 9: CD000515.Google Scholar
Chimowitz, MI, Lynn, MJ, Howlett-Smith, H, et al. Comparison of warfarin and aspirin for symptomatic intracranial arterial stenosis. N Engl J Med 2005; 352(13): 1305–16.Google Scholar
Kasner, SE, Chimowitz, MI, Lynn, MJ, et al. Predictors of ischemic stroke in the territory of a symptomatic intracranial arterial stenosis. Circulation 2006; 113(4): 555–63.Google Scholar
Chimowitz, MI, Lynn, MJ, Derdeyn, CP, et al. Stenting versus aggressive medical therapy for intracranial arterial stenosis. N Engl J Med 2011; 365(11): 9931003.Google Scholar

References

Feigin, VL, Abajobir, AA, Abate, KH, et al. Global, regional, and national burden of neurological disorders during 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2015. Lancet Neurol 2017; 16: 877–97.Google Scholar
World Health Organization. WHO Global Disability Action Plan 2014–2021: Better Health for All People with Disability. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2014.Google Scholar
Langhorne, P, Sandercock, P, Prasad, K. Evidence-based practice for stroke. Lancet Neurol 2009; 8: 308–9.Google Scholar
Langhorne, P, Bernhardt, J, Kwakkel, G. Stroke rehabilitation. Lancet 2011; 377: 1693–702.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, J, Thuy, MN, Collier, JM, Legg, LA. Very early versus delayed mobilisation after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; 1: CD006187.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, J, The AVERT Trial Collaboration group. Efficacy and safety of very early mobilisation within 24 h of stroke onset (AVERT): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2015; 386: 4655.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, J, Churilov, L, Ellery, F, et al. Prespecified dose-response analysis for a very early rehabilitation trial (AVERT). Neurology 2016; 86: 2138–45.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, J, Hayward, KS, Kwakkel, G, et al. Agreed definitions and a shared vision for new standards in stroke recovery research: the Stroke Recovery and Rehabilitation Roundtable Taskforce. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2017; 31: 793–9.Google Scholar
Schiemanck, SK, Kwakkel, G, Post, MW, Prevo, AJ. Predictive value of ischemic lesion volume assessed with magnetic resonance imaging for neurological deficits and functional outcome poststroke: a critical review of the literature. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2006; 20: 492502.Google Scholar
Schiemanck, SK, Kwakkel, G, Post, MW, Kappelle, LJ, Prevo, AJ. Predicting long-term independency in activities of daily living after middle cerebral artery stroke: does information from MRI have added predictive value compared with clinical information? Stroke 2006; 37: 1050–4.Google Scholar
Veerbeek, JM, van Wegen, EE, Harmeling-van der Wel, BC, Kwakkel, G, Investigators, E. Is accurate prediction of gait in nonambulatory stroke patients possible within 72 hours poststroke? The EPOS Study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2011; 25: 268–74.Google Scholar
Nijland, RH, van Wegen, EE, Harmeling-van der Wel, BC, Kwakkel, G, EPOS Investigators. Presence of finger extension and shoulder abduction within 72 hours after stroke predicts functional recovery: early prediction of functional outcome after stroke: the EPOS Cohort Study. Stroke 2010; 41: 745–50.Google Scholar
Scrutinio, D, Lanzillo, B, Guida, P, et al. Development and validation of a predictive model for functional outcome after stroke rehabilitation. The Maugeri Model. Stroke 2017; 48: 3308–15.Google Scholar
Breitenstein, C, Grewe, T, Floel, A, et al. Intensive speech and language therapy in patients with chronic aphasia after stroke: a randomised, open-label, blinded-endpoint, controlled trial in a health-care setting. Lancet 2017; 389: 1528–38.Google Scholar
Charidimou, A, Kasselimis, D, Varkanitsa, M, et al. Why is it difficult to predict language impairment and outcome in patients with aphasia after stroke? J Clin Neurol 2014; 10: 7583.Google Scholar
Terre, R, Mearin, F. Resolution of tracheal aspiration after the acute phase of stroke-related oropharyngeal dysphagia. Am J Gastroenterol 2009; 104: 923–32.Google Scholar
Mann, G, Hankey, GJ, Cameron, D. Swallowing function after stroke: prognosis and prognostic factors at 6 months. Stroke 1999; 30: 744–8.Google Scholar
Winstein, CJ, Stein, J, Arena, R, et al. Guidelines for adult stroke rehabilitation and recovery: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2016; 47: e98169.Google Scholar
Carr, J, Shephard, R. Optimizing functional motor recovery after stroke. In: Mehrholz, J, ed. Physical Therapy for the Stroke Patient: Early Stage Rehabilitation. Stuttgart: Thieme; 2012: 51133.Google Scholar
Carr, J, Shepherd, R. Stroke Rehabilitation: Guidelines for Exercises and Training. London: Butterworth Heinemann; 2003.Google Scholar
Wulf, G, Lewthwaite, R. Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: the OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychon Bull Rev 2016; 23: 1382–414.Google Scholar
Wolf, SL, Kwakkel, G, Bayley, M, McDonnell, MN. Best practice for arm recovery post stroke: an international application. Physiotherapy 2016; 102: 14.Google Scholar
Reinkensmeyer, DJ, Burdet, E, Casadio, M, et al. Computational neurorehabilitation: modeling plasticity and learning to predict recovery. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2016; 13: 125.Google Scholar
Askim, T, Indredavik, B, Vangberg, T, Haberg, A. Motor network changes associated with successful motor skill relearning after acute ischemic stroke: a longitudinal functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2009; 23: 295304.Google Scholar
Nudo, RJ. Mechanisms for recovery of motor function following cortical damage. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2006; 16: 638–44.Google Scholar
Winstein, CJ, Kay, DB. Translating the science into practice: shaping rehabilitation practice to enhance recovery after brain damage. Prog Brain Res 2015; 218: 331–60.Google Scholar
Wulf, G, Shea, C, Lewthwaite, R. Motor skill learning and performance: a review of influential factors. Med Educ 2010; 44: 7584.Google Scholar
Schmidt, R, Lee, T. Motor Control and Learning – a Behavioral Emphasis. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2011.Google Scholar
Schmidt, R, Lee, T. Motor Learning and Control. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 2005.Google Scholar
Veerbeek, JM, van Wegen, E, van Peppen, R, et al. What is the evidence for physical therapy poststroke? A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2014; 9: e87987.Google Scholar
Lohse, KR, Lang, CE, Boyd, LA. Is more better? Using metadata to explore dose-response relationships in stroke rehabilitation. Stroke 2014; 45: 2053–8.Google Scholar
Kwakkel, G, van Peppen, R, Wagenaar, RC, et al. Effects of augmented exercise therapy time after stroke: a meta-analysis. Stroke 2004; 35: 2529–39.Google Scholar
ATTEND Collaborative Group. Family-led rehabilitation after stroke in India (ATTEND): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2017; 390: 588–99.Google Scholar
Winstein, CJ, Wolf, SL, Dromerick, AW, et al. Effect of a task-oriented rehabilitation program on upper extremity recovery following motor stroke: the ICARE randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2016; 315: 571–81.Google Scholar
Saposnik, G, Cohen, LG, Mamdani, M, et al. Efficacy and safety of non-immersive virtual reality exercising in stroke rehabilitation (EVREST): a randomised, multicentre, single-blind, controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2016; 15: 1019–27.Google Scholar
Buma, F, Kwakkel, G, Ramsey, N. Understanding upper limb recovery after stroke. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2013; 31: 707–22.Google Scholar
Walshe, FM. Contributions of John Hughlings Jackson to neurology. A brief introduction to his teachings. Arch Neurol 1961; 5: 119–31.Google Scholar
Gracies, J. Pathophysiology of spastic paresis. II: Emergence of muscle overactivity. Muscle Nerve 2005; 31: 552–71.Google Scholar
Gracies, JM. Pathophysiology of spastic paresis. I: Paresis and soft tissue changes. Muscle Nerve 2005; 31: 535–51.Google Scholar
O'Dwyer, NJ, Ada, L. Reflex hyperexcitability and muscle contracture in relation to spastic hypertonia. Curr Opin Neurol 1996; 9: 451–5.Google Scholar
O'Dwyer, NJ, Ada, L, Neilson, PD. Spasticity and muscle contracture following stroke. Brain 1996; 119: 1737–49.Google Scholar
Carr, J, Shepperd, R. Optimizing functional motor recovery after stroke. In: Mehrholz, J, ed. Physical Therapy for the Stroke Patient: Early Stage Rehabilitation. New York, Stuttgart: Thieme; 2012: 51133.Google Scholar
Lance, JW. Symposium synopsis. In: Feldman, RG, Young, RR, Koella, WP, eds. Spasticity: Disordered Motor Control. Chicago Year Book Medical Publications; 1980: 485–94.Google Scholar
Pandyan, AD, Gregoric, M, Barnes, MP, et al. Spasticity: clinical perceptions, neurological realities and meaningful measurement. Disabil Rehabil 2005; 27: 26.Google Scholar
Pohl, M, Rockstroh, G, Rückriem, S, et al. Measurement of the effect of a bolus dose of intrathecal baclofen by continuous measurement of force under fibreglass casts. J Neurol 2002; 249: 1254–62.Google Scholar
Pohl, M, Rockstroh, G, Rückriem, S, et al. Time course of the effect of a bolus dose of intrathecal baclofen on severe cerebral spasticity. J Neurol 2003; 250: 1195–200.Google Scholar
Tardieu, G, Shentoub, S, Delarue, R. A la recherche d'une technique de mesure de la spasticité. Rev Neurol 1954; 91: 143–4.Google Scholar
Held, J, Pierrot-Deseilligny, E. Reeducation motrice des affections neurologiques. Paris: J-B Baillière; 1969.Google Scholar
Fosang, AL, Galea, MP, McCoy, AT, Reddihough, DS, Story, I. Measures of muscle and joint performance in the lower limb of children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2003; 45: 664–70.Google Scholar
Mehrholz, J, Major, Y, Meißner, D, et al. The influence of contractures and variation in measurement stretching velocity on the reliability of the modified Ashworth scale in patients with severe brain injury. Clin Rehabil 2005; 19: 6372.Google Scholar
Boyd, R, Ada, L. Physiotherapy management of spasticity. In: Barnes, M, Johnson, G, eds. Upper Motor Neuron Syndrome and Spasticity: Clinical Management and Neurophysiology. Cambridge University Press; 2001: 96121.Google Scholar
Boyd, R, Graham, H. Objective measurement of clinical findings in the use of botulinum toxin type A in the management of spasticity in children with cerebral palsy. Eur J Neurol 1999; 6: S23–36.Google Scholar
Mehrholz, J, Wagner, K, Meißner, D, et al. Reliability of the modified Tardieu Scale and the modified Ashworth scale in adult patients with severe brain injury: a comparison study. Clin Rehabil 2005; 19: 751–9.Google Scholar
Walshe, FMR. On certain tonic or postural reflexes in hemiplegia, with special reference to the so-called “associated movements.” Brain 1923; 46: 137.Google Scholar
Ada, L, O'Dwyer, N. Do associated reactions in the upper limb after stroke contribute to contracture formation? Clin Rehabil 2001; 15: 186–94.Google Scholar
Ada, L, Canning, CG, Low, SL. Stroke patients have selective muscle weakness in shortened range. Brain 2003; 126: 724–31.Google Scholar
Hwang, IS, Tung, LC, Yang, JF, et al. Electromyographic analyses of global synkinesis in the paretic upper limb after stroke. Phys Ther 2005; 85: 755–65.Google Scholar
Platz, T, Eickhof, C, Nuyens, G, Vuadens, P. Clinical scales for the assessment of spasticity, associated phenomena, and function: a systematic review of the literature. Disabil Rehabil 2005; 27: 718.Google Scholar
Pohl, M, Rückriem, S, Mehrholz, J, et al. Effectiveness of serial casting in patients with severe cerebral spasticity: a comparison study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2002; 83: 784–90.Google Scholar
Cramer, SC. Editorial comment – spasticity after stroke: what's the catch? Stroke 2004; 35: 139–40.Google Scholar
Sommerfeld, DK, Eek, EU, Svensson, AK, Holmqvist, LW, von Arbin, MH. Spasticity after stroke: its occurrence and association with motor impairments and activity limitations. Stroke 2004; 35: 134–9.Google Scholar
Walker, MF, Hoffmann, TC, Brady, MC, et al. Improving the development, monitoring and reporting of stroke rehabilitation research: consensus-based core recommendations from the stroke recovery and rehabilitation roundtable. Int J Stroke 2017; 12: 472–9.Google Scholar
Kwakkel, G, Lannin, NA, Borschmann, K, et al. Standardized measurement of sensorimotor recovery in stroke trials: consensus-based core recommendations from the stroke recovery and rehabilitation roundtable. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2017; 31: 784–92.Google Scholar
Bernhardt, J, Borschmann, K, Boyd, L, et al. Moving rehabilitation research forward: developing consensus statements for rehabilitation and recovery research. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2017; 31: 694–8.Google Scholar
Pollock, A, Gray, C, Culham, E, Durward, BR, Langhorne, P. Interventions for improving sit-to-stand ability following stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; 5: CD007232.Google Scholar
Pollock, A, Baer, G, Campbell, P, et al. Physical rehabilitation approaches for the recovery of function and mobility following stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; 4: CD001920.Google Scholar
Mehrholz, J, Elsner, B, Werner, C, Kugler, J, Pohl, M. Electromechanical-assisted training for walking after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 7: CD006185.Google Scholar
Colombo, G, Joerg, M, Schreier, R, Dietz, V. Treadmill training of paraplegic patients using a robotic orthosis. J Rehabil Res Devel 2000; 37: 693700.Google Scholar
Hesse, S, Sarkodie-Gyan, T, Uhlenbrock, D. Development of an advanced mechanised gait trainer, controlling movement of the centre of mass, for restoring gait in non-ambulant subjects. Biomedizinische Technik 1999; 44: 194201.Google Scholar
Schmidt, H, Hesse, S, Bernhardt, R, Krüger, J. Hapticwalker – a novel haptic foot device. ACM Transactions on Applied Perception 2005; 2: 166–80.Google Scholar
Louie, DR, Eng, JJ. Powered robotic exoskeletons in post-stroke rehabilitation of gait: a scoping review. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2016; 13: 110.Google Scholar
Wall, A, Borg, J, Palmcrantz, S. Clinical application of the hybrid assistive limb (HAL) for gait training: a systematic review. Front Syst Neurosci 2015; 9: 48.Google Scholar
Hesse, S, Schmidt, H, Werner, C, Bardeleben, A. Upper and lower extremity robotic devices for rehabilitation and for studying motor control. Curr Opin Neurol 2003; 16: 705–10.Google Scholar
Mehrholz, J, Thomas, S, Elsner, B. Treadmill training and body weight support for walking after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2017; 8: CD002840.Google Scholar
Mehrholz, J, Kugler, J, Elsner, B. Network meta-analysis on randomized trials focusing on the effects of interventions for improving ambulation and gait related outcomes after stroke. Deutsches Ärzteblatt 2018; 115: 639–45.Google Scholar
Pohl, M, Mehrholz, J, Ritschel, C, Ruckriem, S. Speed-dependent treadmill training in ambulatory hemiparetic stroke patients: a randomized controlled trial. Stroke 2002; 33: 553–8.Google Scholar
Pollock, A, Farmer, SE, Brady, MC, et al. Interventions for improving upper limb function after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; 11: CD010820.Google Scholar
Kwakkel, G, Veerbeek, JM, van Wegen, EE, Wolf, SL. Constraint-induced movement therapy after stroke. Lancet Neurol 2015; 14: 224–34.Google Scholar
Barzel, A, Ketels, G, Stark, A, et al. Home-based constraint-induced movement therapy for patients with upper limb dysfunction after stroke (HOMECIMT): a cluster-randomised, controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2015; 14: 893902.Google Scholar
Nakayama, H, Jørgensen, HS, Raaschou, HO, Olsen, TS. Recovery of upper extremity function in stroke patients: the Copenhagen Stroke Study. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994; 75: 394–8.Google Scholar
Platz, T. Impairment-oriented training (IOT) – scientific concept and evidence-based treatment strategies. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2004; 22: 301–15.Google Scholar
Platz, T, Elsner, B, Mehrholz, J. Arm basis training and arm ability training: two impairment-oriented exercise training techniques for improving arm function after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; 9: CD011854.Google Scholar
Platz, T. IOT impairment-oriented training. Schädigungs-orientiertes Training. Theorie und deutschsprachige Manuale für Therapie und Assessment. Arm-Basis-Training, Arm-Fähigkeits-training, Fugl-Meyer Test (Arm), TEMPA. Baden-Baden: Deutscher Wissenschafts-Verlag (DWV); 2006.Google Scholar
Platz, T, Winter, T, Müller, N, et al. Arm ability training for stroke and traumatic brain injury patients with mild arm paresis: a single-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001; 82: 961–8.Google Scholar
Platz, T, van Kaick, S, Mehrholz, J, et al. Best conventional therapy versus modular impairment-oriented training for arm paresis after stroke: a single-blind, multicenter randomized controlled trial. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2009; 23: 706–16.Google Scholar
Platz, T, Eickhof, C, van Kaick, S, et al. Impairment-oriented training or Bobath therapy for severe arm paresis after stroke: a single-blind, multicentre randomized controlled trial. Clin Rehabil 2005; 19: 714–24.Google Scholar
Hatem, SM, Saussez, G, Della Faille, M, et al. Rehabilitation of motor function after stroke: a multiple systematic review focused on techniques to stimulate upper extremity recovery. Front Human Neurosci 2016; 10: 442.Google Scholar
Ramachandran, VS. Phantom limbs, neglect syndromes, repressed memory, and Freudian psychology. Int Rev Neurobiol 1994; 37: 291333.Google Scholar
Ramachandran, VS, Altschuler, EL. The use of visual feedback, in particular mirror visual feedback, in restoring brain function. Brain 2009; 132: 1693–710.Google Scholar
Ramachandran, VS, Rogers-Ramachandran, D, Cobb, S. Touching the phantom limb. Nature 1995; 377: 489–90.Google Scholar
Ramachandran, VS, Rogers-Ramachandran, D. Synaesthesia in phantom limbs induced with mirrors. Biological Sci 1996; 263: 377–86.Google Scholar
Thieme, H, Morkisch, N, Mehrholz, J, et al. Mirror therapy for improving motor function after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; 7: CD008449.Google Scholar
Thieme, H, Morkisch, N, Rietz, C, Dohle, C, Borgetto, B. The efficacy of movement representation techniques for treatment of limb pain – a systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal Pain 2016; 17: 167–80.Google Scholar
Burgar, C, Lum, P, Shor, P, van der Loos, H. Development of robots for rehabilitation therapy: the Palo Alto VA/Stanford experience. J Rehabil Res Dev 2000; 37: 663–73.Google Scholar
Krebs, HI, Hogan, N, Aisen, ML, Volpe, BT. Robot-aided neurorehabilitation. IEEE Trans Rehabil Eng 1998; 6: 7587.Google Scholar
Reinkensmeyer, DJ, Kahn, LE, Averbuch, M, et al. Understanding and treating arm movement impairment after chronic brain injury: progress with the arm guide. J Rehabil Res Dev 2000; 37: 653–62.Google Scholar
Fazekas, G, Horvath, M, Troznai, T, Toth, A. Robot-mediated upper limb physiotherapy for patients with spastic hemiparesis: a preliminary study. J Rehabil Med 2007; 39: 580–2.Google Scholar
Coote, S, Stokes, EK. The effect of robot mediated therapy on upper extremity function following stroke – initial results. Ir J Med Sci 2003; 172: 26–7.Google Scholar
Riener, R, Nef, T, Colombo, G. Robot-aided neurorehabilitation of the upper extremities. Med Biol Eng Comput 2005; 43: 210.Google Scholar
Hwang, CH, Seong, JW, Son, DS. Individual finger synchronized robot-assisted hand rehabilitation in subacute to chronic stroke: a prospective randomized clinical trial of efficacy. Clin Rehabil 2012; 26: 696704.Google Scholar
Kwakkel, G, Kollen, BJ, Krebs, HI. Effects of robot-assisted therapy on upper limb recovery after stroke: a systematic review. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2008; 22: 111–21.Google Scholar
Prange, GB, Jannink, MJ, Groothuis-Oudshoorn, CG, Hermens, HJ, Ijzerman, MJ. Systematic review of the effect of robot-aided therapy on recovery of the hemiparetic arm after stroke. J Rehabil Res Dev 2006; 43: 171–84.Google Scholar
Mehrholz, J, Pohl, M, Platz, T, Kugler, J, Elsner, B. Electromechanical and robot-assisted arm training for improving activities of daily living, arm function, and arm muscle strength after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2018; 9: CD006876.Google Scholar
Kwakkel, G, van Wegen, EE, Meskers, CM. Invited commentary on comparison of robotics, functional electrical stimulation, and motor learning methods for treatment of persistent upper extremity dysfunction after stroke: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2015; 96: 991–3.Google Scholar
Meyer, S, Karttunen, AH, Thijs, V, Feys, H, Verheyden, G. How do somatosensory deficits in the arm and hand relate to upper limb impairment, activity, and participation problems after stroke? A systematic review. Phys Ther 2014; 94: 1220–31.Google Scholar
Carey, L, Macdonell, R, Matyas, TA. Sense: study of the effectiveness of neurorehabilitation on sensation: a randomized controlled trial. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2011; 25: 304–13.Google Scholar
Saunders, DH, Sanderson, M, Hayes, S, et al. Physical fitness training for stroke patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; 3: CD003316.Google Scholar
Högg, S. Die Effekte von Krafttraining auf die obere Extremität in der Rehabilitation nach Schlaganfall. Eine systematische Übersichtsarbeit. BSc thesis, SRH Hochschule für Gesundheit Gera; 2016.Google Scholar
Barker, AT, Jalinous, R, Freeston, IL. Non-invasive magnetic stimulation of human motor cortex. Lancet 1985; 1: 1106–7.Google Scholar
Bindman, LJ, Lippold, OC, Redfearn, JW. The action of brief polarizing currents on the cerebral cortex of the rat (1) during current flow and (2) in the production of long-lasting after-effects. J Physiol 1964; 172: 369–82.Google Scholar
Nitsche, MA, Paulus, W. Excitability changes induced in the human motor cortex by weak transcranial direct current stimulation. J Physiol 2000; 527: 633–9.Google Scholar
Priori, A, Berardelli, A, Rona, S, Accornero, N, Manfredi, M. Polarization of the human motor cortex through the scalp. Neuroreport 1998; 9: 2257–60.Google Scholar
Antal, A, Boros, K, Poreisz, C, et al. Comparatively weak after-effects of transcranial alternating current stimulation (TACS) on cortical excitability in humans. Brain Stimul 2008; 1: 97105.Google Scholar
Tufail, Y, Matyushov, A, Baldwin, N, et al. Transcranial pulsed ultrasound stimulates intact brain circuits. Neuron 2010; 66: 681–94.Google Scholar
Nitsche, MA, Paulus, W. Sustained excitability elevations induced by transcranial DC motor cortex stimulation in humans. Neurology 2001; 57: 1899–901.Google Scholar
Nitsche, MA, Nitsche, MS, Klein, CC, et al. Level of action of cathodal DC polarisation induced inhibition of the human motor cortex. Clin Neurophysiol 2003; 114: 600–4.Google Scholar
List, J, Lesemann, A, Kubke, JC, et al. Impact of tDCS on cerebral autoregulation in aging and in patients with cerebrovascular diseases. Neurology 2015; 84: 626–8.Google Scholar
Vines, BW, Cerruti, C, Schlaug, G. Dual-hemisphere tDCS facilitates greater improvements for healthy subjects’ non-dominant hand compared to uni-hemisphere stimulation. BMC Neurosci 2008; 9: 103.Google Scholar
Liebetanz, D, Nitsche, MA, Tergau, F, Paulus, W. Pharmacological approach to the mechanisms of transcranial DC-stimulation-induced after-effects of human motor cortex excitability. Brain 2002; 125: 2238–47.Google Scholar
Nitsche, MA, Fricke, K, Henschke, U, et al. Pharmacological modulation of cortical excitability shifts induced by transcranial direct current stimulation in humans. J Physiol 2003; 553: 293301.Google Scholar
Stagg, CJ, Best, JG, Stephenson, MC, et al. Polarity-sensitive modulation of cortical neurotransmitters by transcranial stimulation. J Neurosci 2009; 29: 5202–6.Google Scholar
Francis, JT, Gluckman, BJ, Schiff, SJ. Sensitivity of neurons to weak electric fields. J Neurosci 2003; 23: 7255–61.Google Scholar
Polania, R, Nitsche, MA, Paulus, W. Modulating functional connectivity patterns and topological functional organization of the human brain with transcranial direct current stimulation. Hum Brain Mapp 2011; 32: 1236–49.Google Scholar
Bikson, M, Inoue, M, Akiyama, H, et al. Effects of uniform extracellular DC electric fields on excitability in rat hippocampal slices in vitro. J Physiol 2004; 557: 175–90.Google Scholar
Antal, A, Keeser, D, Priori, A, Padberg, F, Nitsche, MA. Conceptual and procedural shortcomings of the systematic review “evidence that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) generates little-to-no reliable neurophysiologic effect beyond MEP amplitude modulation in healthy human subjects: a systematic review” by Horvath and co-workers. Brain Stimul 2015; 8: 846–9.Google Scholar
Batsikadze, G, Moliadze, V, Paulus, W, Kuo, MF, Nitsche, MA. Partially non-linear stimulation intensity-dependent effects of direct current stimulation on motor cortex excitability in humans. J Physiol 2013; 591: 19872000.Google Scholar
Bikson, M, Name, A, Rahman, A. Origins of specificity during tDCS: anatomical, activity-selective, and input-bias mechanisms. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7: 688.Google Scholar
Nowak, DA, Grefkes, C, Ameli, M, Fink, GR. Interhemispheric competition after stroke: brain stimulation to enhance recovery of function of the affected hand. Neurorehabil Neural Repair 2009; 23: 641–56.Google Scholar
Elsner, B, Pohl, M, Kugler, J, Mehrholz, J. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for improving activities of daily living, and physical and cognitive functioning, in people after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; 3: CD009645.Google Scholar
Elsner, B, Kugler, J, Pohl, M, Mehrholz, J. Transcranial direct current stimulation for improving spasticity after stroke. A systematic review with meta-analysis. J Rehabil Med 2016; 48: 565–70.Google Scholar
Elsner, B, Pohl, M, Kugler, J, Mehrholz, J. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for improving aphasia and cognition in patients with aphasia after stroke (updated review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; 11: CD009645.Google Scholar
Elsner, B, Kugler, J, Pohl, M, Mehrholz, J. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; 7: CD010916.Google Scholar
Floel, A. tDCS-enhanced motor and cognitive function in neurological diseases. Neuroimage 2014; 85: 934–47.Google Scholar
Di Pino, G, Pellegrino, G, Assenza, G, et al. Modulation of brain plasticity in stroke: a novel model for neurorehabilitation. Nat Rev Neurol 2014; 10: 597608.Google Scholar
Moos, K, Vossel, S, Weidner, R, Sparing, R, Fink, GR. Modulation of top-down control of visual attention by cathodal tDCS over right IPS. J Neurosci 2012; 32: 163608.Google Scholar
Ulm, L, McMahon, K, Copland, D, de Zubicaray, GI, Meinzer, M. Neural mechanisms underlying perilesional transcranial direct current stimulation in aphasia: a feasibility study. Front Hum Neurosci 2015; 9: 550.Google Scholar
Elsner, B, Kwakkel, G, Kugler, J, Mehrholz, J. Network meta-analysis of randomised trials on the effects of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for improving capacity in activities of daily living (ADL) and paretic arm function after stroke. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2017; 14: 95.Google Scholar
Zhang, L, Xing, G, Fan, Y, et al. Short- and long-term effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on upper limb motor function after stroke: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Rehabil 2017; 31: 1137–53.Google Scholar
Brady, MC, Kelly, H, Godwin, J, Enderby, P, Campbell, P. Speech and language therapy for aphasia following stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; 6: CD000425.Google Scholar
Meinzer, M, Darkow, R, Lindenberg, R, Floel, A. Electrical stimulation of the motor cortex enhances treatment outcome in post-stroke aphasia. Brain 2016; 139: 1152–63.Google Scholar
Goldenberg, G. Apraxia. Handb Clin Neurol 2008; 88: 323–38.Google Scholar
Park, JE. Apraxia: review and update. J Clin Neurol 2017; 13: 317–24.Google Scholar
Vanbellingen, T, Bohlhalter, S. Apraxia in neurorehabilitation: classification, assessment and treatment. NeuroRehabil 2011; 28: 91–8.Google Scholar
Bjorneby, ER, Reinvang, IR. Acquiring and maintaining self-care skills after stroke. The predictive value of apraxia. Scand J Rehabil Med 1985; 17: 7580.Google Scholar
Sunderland, A, Shinner, C. Ideomotor apraxia and functional ability. Cortex 2007; 43: 359–67.Google Scholar
Vanbellingen, T, Kersten, B, Van Hemelrijk, B, et al. Comprehensive assessment of gesture production: a new test of upper limb apraxia (TULIA). Eur J Neurol 2010; 17: 5966.Google Scholar
Liepmann, H. Apraxie. Vienna; Berlin: Urban & Schwarzenberg; 1920.Google Scholar
De Renzi, E, Motti, F, Nichelli, P. Imitating gestures. A quantitative approach to ideomotor apraxia. Arch Neurol 1980; 37: 610.Google Scholar
Zadikoff, C, Lang, AE. Apraxia in movement disorders. Brain 2005; 128: 1480–97.Google Scholar
Daumuller, M, Goldenberg, G. Therapy to improve gestural expression in aphasia: a controlled clinical trial. Clin Rehabil 2010; 24: 5565.Google Scholar
Donkervoort, M, Stehmann-Saris, J, Deelman, BG. Efficacy of strategy training in left-hemisphere stroke patients with apraxia: a randomized controlled trial. Neuropsychol Rehabil 2001; 11: 549–66.Google Scholar
Smania, N, Aglioti, SM, Girardi, F, et al. Rehabilitation of limb apraxia improves daily life activities in patients with stroke. Neurology 2006; 67: 2050–2.Google Scholar
Vanbellingen, T, Kersten, B, van de Winckel, A, et al. A new bedside test of gestures in stroke: the apraxia screen of TULIA (AST). J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2011; 82: 389–92.Google Scholar
Vanbellingen, T, Lungu, C, Lopez, G, et al. Short and valid assessment of apraxia in Parkinson's disease. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2012; 18: 348–50.Google Scholar
Kamm, CP, Heldner, MR, Vanbellingen, T, et al. Limb apraxia in multiple sclerosis: prevalence and impact on manual dexterity and activities of daily living. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2012; 93: 1081–5.Google Scholar
Bowen, A, Hazelton, C, Pollock, A, Lincoln, NB. Cognitive rehabilitation for spatial neglect following stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 7: CD003586.Google Scholar
Pollock, A, Hazelton, C, Henderson, CA, et al. Interventions for visual field defects in patients with stroke. Stroke 2012; 43: e37–8.Google Scholar
Chung, CS, Pollock, A, Campbell, T, Durward, BR, Hagen, S. Cognitive rehabilitation for executive dysfunction in adults with stroke or other adult non-progressive acquired brain damage. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013: 4: CD008391.Google Scholar
Elsner, B, Kugler, J, Pohl, M, Mehrholz, J. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) for improving aphasia in patients with aphasia after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015: 5: CD009760.Google Scholar
George, S, Crotty, M, Gelinas, I, Devos, H. Rehabilitation for improving automobile driving after stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; 2: CD008357.Google Scholar
Loetscher, T, Lincoln, NB. Cognitive rehabilitation for attention deficits following stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 5: CD002842.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure coreplatform@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×