In Kenya, ethnic parties dominate the scene. In Namibia, ethnic and nonethnic parties shape the political arena. My third case, Ghana, illustrates that in some African countries the political landscape is dominated by various nonethnic party types, including the catch-all party, the programmatic party, and the personalistic party. It is the only case in which the programmatic party and the personalistic party feature. Ghana has traditionally played a pivotal role in the study of African politics. Both in the immediate post-independence period and in the post–third wave period, the research community dedicated a lot of attention to Ghanaian politics.

After the return of multiparty democracy, political contest is dominated by two major parties, the National Patriotic Party (NPP) and the National Democratic Congress (NDC).

The NPP was in opposition between 1992 and 2000. In 2008, the NPP was voted back into opposition. Over time, the NPP transformed from a multiethnic alliance to a programmatic party. Once in government, it transformed into a catch-all party. The NDC was in government between 1992 and 2000, in opposition between 2000 and 2008, and was voted back into government in late 2008. The party started out as a personalistic party; subsequently it became a catch-all party. Thus, Ghana is the only country where the programmatic party type emerges. Both major parties display visible ideological predilections.