5 - Movement disorders
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 08 February 2010
Summary
Introduction
The somatic motor system controls voluntary movement, locomotion and posture. The motor system is the output organ for all conscious communications. The motor system is complex and it includes sophisticated control systems with many loops, most of which are integrated with one another. The motor system includes a large degree of redundancy, and it has a high degree of plasticity. Therefore, motor systems can be reorganized through expression of neural plasticity, and such reorganization can be activated by new or differing use (exercise), changing demands or injury. Expression of neural plasticity can also cause symptoms and signs of disease.
Disorders of the motor system may cause negative phenomena such as loss of voluntary movement and strength of fine motor control, muscle spasm, tremor, twitches and synkinesis, involuntary movements (chorea, athetosis) and deficits in coordination (ataxia), or positive phenomena such as increased reflexes and increased tone. Reorganization and change in function that are primarily aimed at compensating for deficits may cause symptoms and signs that are not directly related to the primary injury.
Understanding the function of motor systems is a challenge. It is an even greater challenge to understand the causes of various symptoms and signs of injury and diseases that affect the motor systems of the spinal cord and brain. We will therefore devote a part of this chapter to describing the basic organization and function of the motor system.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- Neural Plasticity and Disorders of the Nervous System , pp. 241 - 329Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2006
References
Abbott, R., Sensory Rhizotomy for the Treatment of Childhood Spasticity, in Neurophysiology in Neurosurgery, and , Editors. 2002, Academic Press: Amsterdam. pp. 219–230.Google Scholar
and , Cortical Electrical Stimulation Combined with Rehabilitative Training: Enhanced Functional Recovery and Dendritic Plasticity Following Focal Cortical Ischemia in Rats. Neurol. Res., 2003. 25: pp. 780–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , , , , , and , Electrophysiological Studies of Some Deep Cerebral Structures in Man. J. Neuro. Sci., 1966. 3: pp. 37–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , The Functional Anatomy of Basal Ganglia Origin. Trends Neurosci., 1989. 12: pp. 366–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Dopamine Receptor Autoradiography of Human Narcoleptic Brain. Neurology, 1992. 42: pp. 410–5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Functional Architecture of Basal Ganglia Circuits: Neural Substrate of Parallel Processing. Trends Neurosci., 1990(13): pp. 266–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Basal Ganglia-Thalamocortical Circuits: Parallel Substrates for Motor, Oculomotor, “Prefrontal” and “Limbic” Functions. Progr. Brain Res., 1990. 85: pp. 119–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Brainstem Relay of Disynaptic Pyramidal Epsps to Neck Motoneurons in the Cat. Brain Res., 1983. 259: pp. 147–150.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Physiologic Basis of Motor Effects of a Transient Stimulus to Cerebral Cortex. Neurosurg., 1987. 20: pp. 74–93.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Focal Stimulation of Human Cerebral Cortex with the Magnetic Coil: A Comparison with Electrical Stimulation. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophys., 1989. 74: pp. 401–416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , A Comparison of Corticospinal Activation by Magnetic Coil and Electrical Stimulation of Monkey Motor Cortex. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophys., 1990. 77: pp. 390–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Amassian, V. E., Animal and Human Motor System Neurophysiology Related to Intraoperative Monitoring, in Neurophysiology in Neurosurgery, and , Editors. 2002, Academic Press: Amsterdam. pp. 3–23.Google Scholar
, , , and , Mapping by Microstimulation of Overlapping Projections from Area 4 to Motor Units of the Baboon's Hand. Proc. R. Soc. London ser B., 1975. 188: pp. 31–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Reciprocal Inhibition Following Lesions of the Spinal Cord in Man. J. Physiol., 1989. 414: pp. 145–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baldisera, F., H. Hultborn, and M. Illert, Integration of Spinal Neuronal Systems, in Handbook of Physiology – The Nervous System II, and , Editors. 1981, American Physiological Society: Bethesda, MD. pp. 509–595.Google Scholar
, , and , Non-Invasive Magnetic Stimulation of the Human Motor Cortex. Lancet, 1985: pp. 1106–1107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Prevalence of Parkinsonian Signs and Associated Mortality in a Community Population of Older People. N. Eng. J. Med., 1996. 334: pp. 71–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Functional and Chemical Anatomy of the Afferent Vagal System. Autonomic Neurosci., 2000. 85(1–3): pp. 1–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blandini, F., C. Tassorelli, and J. T. Greenamyre, Movement Disorders, in Principles of Neural Aging, , , and , Editors. 1997, Elsevier: Amsterdam.Google Scholar
, , , , and , Association of Rapid eye movement (sleep) Sleep Behavior Disorder and Neurodegenerative Disease May Reflect an Underlying Synucleinopathy. Movement Disorders, 2001. 16(4): pp. 622–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , and , Post-Synaptic Potentials in a Population of Motoneurons Following Activity of Single Interneurons in the Cat. J. Physiol., 1983. 343: pp. 341–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , Motor Cortex Stimulation for Enhancement of Recovery after Stroke: Case Report. Neurol. Res., 2003. 25: pp. 815–818.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Pathophysiology of Spasticity. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 1994. 57: pp. 773–777.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Current Status of Spinal Cord Monitoring. Spine, 1979. 4: pp. 466–478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burke, D. and J. W. Lance, Studies of the Reflex Effects of Primary and Secondary Spindle Endings in Spasticity, in New Developments in Electromyography and Clinical Neurophysiology, Editor. 1973, Karger: Basel. pp. 475–495.Google Scholar
Burke, D., Spasticity as an Adaptation to Pyramidal Tract Injury, in Functional Recovery in Neurological Disease, , Editor. 1988, Raven Press: New York.Google Scholar
, , , , , and , Immunocytochemical and Neurochemical Evidence for Age-Related Loss of Gamma aminobutyric acid in the Inferior Colliculus: Implications for Neural Presbycusis. J. Neurosci., 1990. 10: pp. 2363–2372.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Central Auditory Aging: Gamma aminobutyric acid Changes in the Inferior Colliculus. Exp. Gerontol., 1995. 30: pp. 349–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Ligation of the Anterior Choroidal Artery for Involuntary Movements in Parkinsonism. Psychiatry, 1953. 27: pp. 317–319.Google ScholarPubMed
, , , , , , . , and , Impairment in Shifting Attention in Autistic and Cerebellar Patients. Behav. Neurosci., 1994. 108: pp. 848–865.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, and , Sampling of Total Muscle Force by Tendon Organs. J. Neurophys., 1982. 47: pp. 1069–1083.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , , , and , Mapping Individual Brains to Guide Restorative Therapy after Stroke: Rationale and Pilot Studies. Neurol Res, 2003(25): pp. 811–814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Restoration of Bladder, Bowel, and Sexual Function. Topics Spinal Cord Inj. Rehabil., 1999. 5: pp. 21–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , , , and , Therapeutic Neural Effects of Electrical Stimulation. IEEE Trans. Rehab. Eng., 1996. 4(4): pp. 218–230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , A Primary Acoustic Startle Circuit-Lesion and Stimulation Studies. J. Neurosci., 1982. 2: pp. 791–805.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, The Role of the Amygdala in Fear and Anxiety. Ann. Rev. Neurosci, 1992. 15: pp. 353–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Mechanisms of the Reflex Discharge Depression in Spinal Motoneurone During Repetitive Orthodromic Stimulation. Brain Res., 1967. 4: pp. 284–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deletis, V., Intraoperative Neurophysiology and Methodologies Used to Monitor the Functional Integrity of the Motor System, in Neurophysiology in Neurosurgery, and , Editors. 2002, Academic Press: Amsterdam. pp. 25–51.Google Scholar
, Primate Models of Movement Disorders of Basal Ganglia Origin. Trends Neurosci., 1990. 13: pp. 281–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Short Latency Autogenic Inhibition (Ib Inhibition) in Human Spasticity. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psych., 1988. 51: pp. 1548–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Long-Lasting Reductions of Spasticity Induced by Skin Electric Al Stimulation. IEEE Trans. Rehab. Eng., 1996. 4(4): pp. 231–242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Spinal Cord Pattern Generators for Locomotion. Clin. Neurophysiol., 2003. 114(8): pp. 1379–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Model for the Study of Plasticity of the Human Nervous System: Features of Residual Spinal Cord Motor Activity Resulting from Established Post-Traumatic Injury, in Plasticity of the Neuromuscular System (Ciba Foundation Symposium 138). 1988, Wiley: Chichester. pp. 227–239.Google Scholar
, , and , Dynamic Organization of Primary Motor Cortex Output to Target Muscles in Adult Rats. II. Rapid Reorganization Following Motor Nerve Lesions. Exp. Brain Res., 1990. 79(3): pp. 492–503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Mechanisms of Deep Brain Stimulation. Movement Disorders, 2002. 17(Suppl. 3): pp. S63–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Plasticity at Its Simplest Level, in Centennial Lectures of E. E. Squibb & Son. 1959, Putnam & Sons: New York. pp. 217–244.Google Scholar
, , , and , Excitation of the Corticospinal Tract by Electromagnetic and Electrical Stimulation of the Scalp in the Macaque Monkey. J. Physiol. (Lond.), 1990. 425: pp. 301–320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , Increased Cortical Representation of the Fingers of the Left Hand in String Players. Science, 1995. 270(5234): pp. 305–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Intraoperative Electrical Stimulation for Functional Posterior Rhizotomy. Scand. J. Rehab. Med., 1988. 17: pp. 149–54.Google ScholarPubMed
Fetz, E. E., K. Toyama, and W. Smith, Synaptic Interaction between Cortical Neurons, in Cerebral Cortex, and , Editors. 1990, Plenum: New York. pp. 1–47.Google Scholar
, , and , Response Patterns and Post-Spike Effects of Peripheral Afferents in Dorsal Root Ganglia of Behaving Monkeys. J. Neurophysiol., 1992. 67: pp. 875–889.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , Reorganization of Remote Cortical Regions after Ischemic Brain Injury: A Potential Substrate for Stroke Recovery. J. Neurophysiol., 2003. 89(6): pp. 3205–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Amygdaloid Stimulation and Learning in the Rat. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., 1964. 58: pp. 23–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goetz, C. G. and E. J. Pappert, Textbook of Clinical Neurology. 1999, W. B. Saunders Company: Philadelphia.
, , and , Adaptive and Maladaptive Motor Axonal Sprouting in Aging and Motoneuron Disese. Neurol. Res., 2004. 26: pp. 174–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Muscle Spindle Responses to Stretch in Normal and Spastic Subjects. Scand. J. Rehab. Med., 1973. 5: pp. 156–159.Google ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Reveals Reorganized Cortical Outputs in Amputees. Neurosci. Lett., 1990. 116: pp. 379–386.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , The Effects of Rectal Probe Electrostimulation on Spinal Cord Injury Spasticity. Paraplegia, 1991. 29: pp. 43–47.Google ScholarPubMed
, , , , , and , Relief of Spasticity in Sci Men and Women Using Rectal Probe Electrostimulation. Paraplegia, 1993. 31: pp. 715–721.Google ScholarPubMed
, , and , From Spinal Shock to Spasticity: Neuronal Adaptations to a Spinal Cord Injury. Neurology, 2000. 54(8): pp. 1574–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Effects of an Acute Muscle Nerve Section on Excitability of Dorsal Horn Neurons in the Rat. Pain, 1995. 60(22): pp. 151–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, The Mammalian Muscle Spindle and Its Central Control. Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol., 1984. 101: pp. 1–110.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Properties of Pyramidal Tract Neuron System within Functionally Defined Subregion of Primate Motor Cortex. J. Neurophys., 1978. 41: pp. 216–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Reshaping the Cortical Motor Map by Unmasking Latent Intracortical Connections. Science, 1991. 251: pp. 944–947.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jankovic, J., Tics in Other Neurological Disorders, in Handbook of Tourette's Syndrome and Related Tic and Behavioral Disorders, , Editor. 1993, Marcel Dekker: New York. pp. 167–182.Google Scholar
and , Synaptic Actions of Single Interneurons Mediating Reciprocal Ia Inhibition to Motoneurons. J. Physiol., 1972. 222: pp. 623–642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Interneurons in the Spinal Cord. Trends Neurosci., 1981. 4: pp. 230–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , Sensory Perception in Parkinson Disease. Arch. Neurol., 1997. 54: pp. 450–4.
, , , , , and , Importance of Behavioral Manipulations and Measures in Rat Models of Brain Damage and Brain Repair. Ilar Journal, 2003. 44(2): pp. 144–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , The Effects of Electrical Nerve Stimulation of the Lower Extremity on H-Reflex and F-Wave Parameters. Electromyography Clin. Neurophysiol., 2001. 41(1): pp. 23–8.Google ScholarPubMed
, , , and , The Effect of Current Direction Induced by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation on Corticospinal Excitability in Human Brain. Electroenceph Clin Neurophys, 1966. 101: pp. 478–482.Google Scholar
, , and , Increase in Tibialis Anterior Motor Cortex Excitability Following Repetitive Electrical Stimulation of the Common Peroneal Nerve. Exp. Brain Res., 2002. 143(3): pp. 309–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Proprioceptive Regulation of Voluntary Ankle Movements, Demonstrated Using Muscle Vibration, Is Impaired by Parkinson's Disease. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 1999. 67: pp. 504–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Conduction Pathways and Generators of Magnetic Evoked Spinal Cord Potentials: A Study in Monkeys. Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophys., 1994. 93: pp. 57–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kothbauer, K. F., Motor Evoked Potential Monitoring for Intramedullary Spinal Cord Tumor Surgery, in Neurophysiology in Neurosurgery, and , Editors. 2002, Academic Press: Amsterdam. pp. 73–92.Google Scholar
Kuypers, H. G. J. M., Anatomy of the Descending Pathways, in Handbook of Physiology – the Nervous System, and , Editors. 1981, American Physiological Society: Bethesda, MD. pp. 597–666.Google Scholar
, , , , , , and , Corticospinal Volleys Evoked by Transcranial Stimulation of the Brain in Concious Humans. Neurol. Res., 2003. 25: pp. 143–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , , and , Methods for Microstimulation and Recording of Single Neurons and Evoked Potentials in the Human Central Nervous System. J. Neurosurg. 1988. 68(4): pp. 630–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , and , Single-Unit Analysis of the Human Ventral Thalamic Nuclear Group: Somatosensory Responses. J. Neurophysiol., 1988. 59(2): pp. 299–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , , , and , Single Unit Analysis of the Human Ventral Thalamic Nuclear Group: Correlation of Thalamic “Tremor Cells” with the 3–6 Hz Component of Parkinsonian Tremor. J. Neurosci., 1988. 8(3): pp. 754–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Characteristics of the Bursting Pattern of Action Potentials That Occurs in the Thalamus of Patients with Central Pain. Brain Res., 1989. 496(1–2): pp. 357–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , and , Single Unit Analysis of the Human Ventral Thalamic Nuclear Group. Activity Correlated with Movement. Brain, 1990. 113(Pt 6): pp. 1795–1821.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , , and , Thalamic Single-Unit Activity Occurring in Patients with Hemidystonia. Stereotact. Funct. Neurosurg., 1990. 54–55: pp. 159–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , , and , Thalamic Single Neuron Activity in Patients with Dystonia: Dystonia-Related Activity and Somatic Sensory Reorganization. J. Neurophysiol., 1999. 82(5): pp. 2372–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Recurrent Control from Motor Axon Collaterals on Ia Inhibitory Pathways in the Spinal Cord of the Cat. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl., 1973. 392: pp. 1–43.Google ScholarPubMed
and , Effects from Pyramidal Tract on Spinal Reflex Arcs. Acta Physiol. Scand., 1962. 56: pp. 201–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Multisensory Control of Spinal Reflex Pathways. Prog. Brain Res., 1979. 50: pp. 11–28.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Spinal Circuitry of Sensorimotor Control of Locomotion. J. Physiol., 2001. 533(1): pp. 41–50.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Electrical Stimulation of Human Motor and Visual Cortex through the Scalp. J. Physiol., 1980. 305: pp. 9–10P.Google Scholar
, , , , , and , Topographic Reorganization of Somatosensory Cortical Areas 3b and 1 in Adult Monkeys Following Restricted Deafferentiation. Neuroscience, 1983. 8(1): pp. 3–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Møller, A. R., Cranial Nerve Dysfunction Syndromes: Pathophysiology of Microvascular Compression, in Neurosurgical Topics Book 13, ‘Surgery of Cranial Nerves of the Posterior Fossa,’ Chapter 2, , Editor. 1993, American Association of Neurological Surgeons: Park Ridge. IL. pp. 105–129.Google Scholar
, , and , The Amygdala: A Critical Modulator of Sensory Influence on Sleep. Biological Signals & Receptors, 2000. 9(6): pp. 283–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and , 2002, Dynamic Visual Speech Perception in a Patient with Visual Form Agnosia. NeuroReport, 2002. 13(14): pp. 1793–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Electromyographic (Emg) Study of Cold Shivering in the Chronic Spinal Dog. Jap. J. Physiol., 1997. 47(1): pp. 81–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Visual Information Process in Williams Syndrome: Intact Motion Detection Accompanied by Typical Visuospatial Dysfunctions. European Journal of Neuroscience, 2002. 16: pp. 1810–1818.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Corticospinal Excitation of Presumed Cervical Propriospinal Neurons and Its Reversal to Inhibition in Humans. J. Physiol., 2001. 533(3): pp. 903–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Role of Sensory Deficits in Motor Impairments after Injury to Primary Motor Cortex. Neuropharmacol., 2000. 39(5): pp. 733–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Use of Somatosensory Evoked Potentials for Intraoperative Monitoring of Cerebral and Spinal Cord Function. Neurologic Clinics, 1988. 6(4): pp. 881–97.Google ScholarPubMed
, , and , Proprioception in Parkinson's Disease Is Acutely Depressed by Dopamine Medications. J. Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry, 2001. 71: pp. 607–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Behaviour Disorder: Demographic, Clinical and Laboratory Findings in 93 Cases. Brain, 2000. 123(2): pp. 231–239.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, The Cervical Cord in Multiple Sclerosis. Neuropath. Appl. Neurobiol., 1978. 4(151–162).CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , Cerebral Palsy Spasticity: Selective Posterior Rhizotomy. Pediatr. Neurosci., 1987. 13: pp. 61–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Peripheral and Descending Control of Neurones Mediating Non-Monosynaptic Ia Excitation to Motoneurons: A Presumed Propriospinal System in Man. Prog. Brain Res., 1989. 80: pp. 305–314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Propriospinal Transmission of Part of the Corticospinal Excitation in Humans. Muscle & Nerve., 2002. 26(2): pp. 155–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , , , , and , Post-Infarct Cortical Plasticity and Behavioral Recovery Using Concurrent Cortical Stimulation and Rehabilitative Training: A Feasibility Study in Primates. Neurol. Res., 2003. 25: pp. 801–810.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , The Termination of the Corticospinal Tract Axons in the Macaque Monkey. J. Comp. Neurol., 1985. 242: pp. 325–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Auditory Cortical Field Projections to the Basal Ganglia of the Cat. Neurosci., 1983. 8(1): pp. 67–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , and , A Direct Projection from the Central Nucleus of the Amygdala to the Acoustic Startle Pathway: Anterograde and Retrograde Tracing Studies. Behav. Neurosci., 1991. 105: pp. 817–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Deep Brain Stimulation for Movement Disorders. Neurol. Res., 2004. 26: pp. 9–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, Transcranial Magnetic Brain Stimulation: A Tool to Investigate Central Motor Pathways. News Physiol. Sci., 2001. 16: pp. 297–302.Google ScholarPubMed
Rudomin, P., Presynaptic Control of Synaptic Effectiveness of Muscle Spindle and Tendon Organ Afferents in the Mammalian Spinal Cord, in The Segmental Motor System, and , Editors. 1990, Oxford University Press: Oxford. pp. 349–380.Google Scholar
, Some Aspects of the Pathophysiology of Spasticity and Rigidity. Clin. Pharmacol. Therapeutics, 1964. 6: pp. 828–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Dynamic Organization of Primary Motor Cortex Output to Target Muscles in Adult Rat. I. Long Term Patterns of Reorganization Following Motor or Mixed Peripheral Nerve Lesions. Exp. Brain Res., 1990. 79: pp. 479–491.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , and , Prominent Eye Movements During NREM Sleep and Rapid eye movement (sleep) Sleep Behavior Disorder Associated with Fuoxetine Treatment of Depression and Obsessive- Compulsive Disorder. Sleep, 1992. 15(3): pp. 226–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and , A Parasomnia Overlap Disorder Involving Sleepwalking, Sleep Terrors, and Rapid eye movement (sleep) Sleep Behavior Disorder in 33 Polysomnographically Confirmed Cases. Sleep, 1997. 20(11): pp. 972–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, The Hoffman Reflex: A Means of Assessing Spinal Reflex Excitability and Its Descending Control in Man. Prog. Neurobiol., 1987. 28: pp. 345–376.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Parkinson's Disease: Sensory and Motor Problems in Arms and Hands. Neurology, 1987. 37: pp. 951–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Beyond Ashworth: Electrophysiologic Quantification of Spasticity. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, 1998. 9(4): pp. 949–979.Google ScholarPubMed
and , Rapid Changes in Protein Synthesis and Cell Size in the Cochlear Nucleus Following Eighth Nerve Activity Blockade and Cochlea Ablation. J. Comp. Neurol., 1992. 320: pp. 501–508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Understanding and Measurement of Muscle Tone as Related to Clinical Muscle Pain. Pain, 1998. 75(1)(1): pp. 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Microsurgical-Drez-Otomy for Treatment of Spasticity and Pain in the Lower Limbs. Neurosurgery, 1989. 24: pp. 655–670.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sindou, M. and P. Mertens, Selective Spinal Cord Procedures for Spasticity and Pain, in Neurophysiology in Neurosurgery, and , Editors. 2002, Academic Press: Amsterdam. pp. 93–117.Google Scholar
, , and , Orgasm in Women with Spinal Cord Injuries: A Laboratory-Based Assessment. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil., 1995. 76: pp. 1097–1102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , and R. R. Rosen, Sexual Arousal and Orgasm in Women: Effects of Spinal Cord Injury. Ann. Neurol., 2001. 49(1): pp. 35–44.3.0.CO;2-J>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sloan, T. and D. Angell, Differential Effect of Isoflurane on Motor Evoked Potentials Elicited by Transcortical Electric or Magnetic Stimulation, in Handbook of Spinal Cord Monitoring, , et al., Editors. 1993, Kluver Academic Publishers: Hingham, MA. pp. 362–367.Google Scholar
Sloan, T., Anesthesia and Motor Evoked Potential Monitoring, in Neurophysiology in Neurosurgery, and , Editors. 2002, Academic Press: Amsterdam. pp. 451–474.Google Scholar
, , , , and , Influence of Proprioceptive Input on Parkinsonian Tremor. J. Clin. Neurophysiol., 2002. 19(1): pp. 84–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Anorectal Function in Patients with Complete Spinal Transection before and after Sacral Posterior Rhizotomy. Gastroenterology, 1994. 108: pp. 990–998.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and , Spinal Cord Monitoring: Basic Principles and Experimental Aspects. Cent. Nerv. Syst. Trauma, 1985. 2: pp. 137–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , and , Defective Utilization of Sensory Input as the Basis of Bradykinesia, Rigidity, and Decreased Movement Repertoire in Parkinson's Disease: A Hypothesis. Can. J. Neurol. Sci., 1984. 11: pp. 136–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
and , Surgery in Tourette Syndrome. Mov. Disord., 2004. 19(1): pp. 3–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , and , Reorganization of Corticospinal Pathways Following Spinal Cord Injury. Neurology, 1991. 41(8): pp. 1276–1283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , , , , , , and , Microelectrode-Guided Pallidotomy: Technical Approach and Application for Treatment of Medically Intractable Parkinson's Disease. J. Neurosurg., 1998. 88: pp. 1027–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, , , , , , , , , and , Neuronal Activity in the Basal Ganglia in Patients with Generalized Dystonia and Hemiballismus. Ann. Neurol., 1999. 46(1): pp. 22–35.3.0.CO;2-Z>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
, The Presence of Ineffective Synapses and Circumstances which Unmask Them. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. (Lond.), 1977. 278: pp. 361–372.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, Muscles, Masses and Motion: The Physiology of Normality, Hypotonicity, Spasticity and Rigidity. 1992, Blackwell: Oxford.Google Scholar
, , and , Sexual Response to Self-Stimulation in Women with Complete Spinal Cord Injury. J. Sex. Res., 1996. 33: pp. 231–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and , Facilitation of Spinal Motoneuron by 5-Hydroxytryptamine and Noradrenaline. Brain Res., 1980. 185: pp. 1–9.Google Scholar
Wiesendanger, M., The Pyramidal Tract. Its Structure and Function, in Handbook of Behavioral Neurobiology, and , Editors. 1981, Plenum: New York. pp. 401–490.Google Scholar
and , Adaptive Plasticity in the Primate Spinal Stretch Reflex: Evidence of a Two-Phase Process. J. Neuro. Sci., 1984. 4: pp. 2718–24.Google ScholarPubMed
, A. Rabin, and A. Anderson, Monosynaptic Inhibition of Pallidal Neurons by Axon Collaterals of Caudatonigral Fibers. Exp. Brain Res, 1972. 15: pp. 33–347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar