Book contents
- High-Risk Pregnancy: Management Options
- High-Risk Pregnancy: Management Options
- Copyright page
- Contents
- Contributors
- Section 1 Prepregnancy Problems
- Section 2 Early Prenatal Problems
- Section 3 Late Prenatal – Fetal Problems
- Chapter 9 Prenatal Fetal Surveillance (Content last reviewed: 15th December 2018)
- Chapter 10 Fetal Growth Disorders (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 11 Disorders of Amniotic Fluid (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 12 Fetal Hemolytic Disease (Content last reviewed: 15th February 2018)
- Chapter 13 Fetal Thrombocytopenia (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 14 Fetal Cardiac Arrhythmias (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 15 Fetal Cardiac Abnormalities (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 16 Fetal Craniospinal and Facial Abnormalities
- Chapter 17 Fetal Genitourinary Abnormalities (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 18 Fetal Gastrointestinal and Abdominal Abnormalities (Content last reviewed: 15th February 2018)
- Chapter 19 Fetal Skeletal Abnormalities
- Chapter 20 Fetal Tumors (Content last reviewed: 15th February 2018)
- Chapter 21 Fetal Hydrops (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 22 Fetal Death
- Section 4 Problems Associated with Infection
- Chapter 24 Hepatitis Virus Infections in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 23rd July 2019)
- Chapter 25 Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 23rd July 2019)
- Chapter 26 Rubella, Measles, Mumps, Varicella, and Parvovirus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Chapter 27 Cytomegalovirus, Herpes Simplex Virus, Adenovirus, Coxsackievirus, and Human Papillomavirus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Chapter 28 Parasitic Infections in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 15th June 2018)
- Chapter 29 Other Infectious Conditions in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Section 5 Late Pregnancy – Maternal Problems
- Section 6 Late Prenatal – Obstetric Problems
- Section 7 Postnatal Problems
- Section 8 Normal Values
- Index
- References
Chapter 22 - Fetal Death
from Section 3 - Late Prenatal – Fetal Problems
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 November 2017
Book contents
- High-Risk Pregnancy: Management Options
- High-Risk Pregnancy: Management Options
- Copyright page
- Contents
- Contributors
- Section 1 Prepregnancy Problems
- Section 2 Early Prenatal Problems
- Section 3 Late Prenatal – Fetal Problems
- Chapter 9 Prenatal Fetal Surveillance (Content last reviewed: 15th December 2018)
- Chapter 10 Fetal Growth Disorders (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 11 Disorders of Amniotic Fluid (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 12 Fetal Hemolytic Disease (Content last reviewed: 15th February 2018)
- Chapter 13 Fetal Thrombocytopenia (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 14 Fetal Cardiac Arrhythmias (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 15 Fetal Cardiac Abnormalities (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 16 Fetal Craniospinal and Facial Abnormalities
- Chapter 17 Fetal Genitourinary Abnormalities (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 18 Fetal Gastrointestinal and Abdominal Abnormalities (Content last reviewed: 15th February 2018)
- Chapter 19 Fetal Skeletal Abnormalities
- Chapter 20 Fetal Tumors (Content last reviewed: 15th February 2018)
- Chapter 21 Fetal Hydrops (Content last reviewed: 15th March 2020)
- Chapter 22 Fetal Death
- Section 4 Problems Associated with Infection
- Chapter 24 Hepatitis Virus Infections in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 23rd July 2019)
- Chapter 25 Human Immunodeficiency Virus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 23rd July 2019)
- Chapter 26 Rubella, Measles, Mumps, Varicella, and Parvovirus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Chapter 27 Cytomegalovirus, Herpes Simplex Virus, Adenovirus, Coxsackievirus, and Human Papillomavirus in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Chapter 28 Parasitic Infections in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 15th June 2018)
- Chapter 29 Other Infectious Conditions in Pregnancy (Content last reviewed: 11th November 2020)
- Section 5 Late Pregnancy – Maternal Problems
- Section 6 Late Prenatal – Obstetric Problems
- Section 7 Postnatal Problems
- Section 8 Normal Values
- Index
- References
Summary
The US National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) defines fetal death as “death prior to the complete expulsion or extraction from the mother of a product of human conception, irrespective of the duration of pregnancy and which is not an induced termination of pregnancy.” This definition is subcategorized by the gestational age at which the demise occurred: embryonic death at ≤ 12+6 weeks, early fetal death at 13–19+6 weeks’ gestation, intermediate fetal death at 20–27+6 weeks’ gestation, and late fetal death at ≥28 weeks’ gestation. The NCHS recommends reporting fetal deaths at ≥ 20 weeks’ gestation or, should the gestational age be unknown, a fetal weight of ≥ 350 grams, which represents the 50th percentile of weight at 20 weeks. Excluded from the definition of fetal death and associated statistics are losses due to induction after previable premature rupture of membranes or terminations/inductions for lethal fetal anomalies.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- High-Risk PregnancyManagement Options, pp. 567 - 578Publisher: Cambridge University PressFirst published in: 2017
References
MacDorman, MF, Kirmeyer, S. Fetal and perinatal mortality, United States, 2005. Natl Vital Stat Rep 2009; 57 (8): 1–19.Google Scholar
National Center for Health Statistics Model state vital statistics act and regulations. 1992 Revision. https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/misc/mvsact92b.pdf (accessed March 2017).Google Scholar
ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 102: management of stillbirth. Obstet Gynecol 2009; 113: 748–61.Google Scholar
Stanton, C, Lawn, JE, Rahman, H, Wilczynska-Ketende, K, Hill, K. Stillbirth rates: delivering estimates in 190 countries. Lancet 2006; 367: 1487–94.Google Scholar
Lawn, JE, Blencowe, H, Pattinson, R, et al. Stillbirths: Where? When? Why? How to make the data count? Lancet 2011; 377: 1448–63.Google Scholar
MacDorman, MF, Gregory, EC. Fetal and perinatal mortality: United States, 2013. Natl Vital Stat Rep 2015; 64(8): 1–24.Google Scholar
Stillbirth Collaborative Research Network Writing Group. Causes of death among stillbirths. JAMA 2011; 306: 2459–68.Google Scholar
Reddy, UM, Ko, CW, Willinger, M. Maternal age and the risk of stillbirth throughout pregnancy in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 195: 764–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharma, PP, Salihu, HM, Oyelese, Y, Ananth, CV, Kirby, RS. Is race a determinant of stillbirth recurrence? Obstet Gynecol 2006; 107: 391–7.Google Scholar
Vintzileos, AM, Ananth, CV, Smulian, JC, Scorza, WE, Knuppel, RA. Prenatal care and black-white fetal death disparity in the United States: heterogeneity by high-risk conditions. Obstet Gynecol 2002; 99: 483–9.Google ScholarPubMed
Arias, E, Anderson, RN, Kung, HC, Murphy, SL, Kochanek, KD. Deaths: final data for 2001. Natl Vital Stat Rep 2003; 52 (3): 1–115.Google ScholarPubMed
Frøen, JF, Arnestad, M, Frey, K, et al., Risk factors for sudden intrauterine unexplained death: epidemiologic characteristics of singleton cases in Oslo, Norway, 1986–1995. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001; 184: 694–702.Google Scholar
Oron, T, Sheiner, E, Shoham-Vardi, I, et al. Risk factors for antepartum fetal death. J Reprod Med 2001; 46: 825–30.Google Scholar
Nohr, EA, Bech, BH, Davies, MJ, et al. Prepregnancy obesity and fetal death: a study within the Danish National Birth Cohort. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 106: 250–9.Google Scholar
Raymond, EG, Cnattingius, S, Kiely, JL. Effects of maternal age, parity, and smoking on the risk of stillbirth. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1994; 101: 301–6.Google Scholar
Wisborg, K, Ingerslev, HJ, Henriksen, TB. IVF and stillbirth: a prospective follow-up study. Hum Reprod 2010; 25: 1312–16.Google Scholar
Surkan, PJ, Stephansson, O, Dickman, PW, Cnattingius, S. Previous preterm and small-for-gestational-age births and the subsequent risk of stillbirth. N Engl J Med 2004; 350: 777–85.Google Scholar
Gardosi, J, Kady, SM, McGeown, P, Francis, A, Tonks, A. Classification of stillbirth by relevant condition at death (ReCoDe): population based cohort study. BMJ 2005; 331: 1113–17.Google Scholar
Varner, MW, Silver, RM, Rowland Hogue, CJ, et al. Association between stillbirth and illicit drug use and smoking during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2014; 123: 113–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stillbirth Collaborative Research Network Writing Group. Association between stillbirth and risk factors known at pregnancy confirmation. JAMA 2011; 306: 2469–79.Google Scholar
Gordon, A, Raynes-Greenow, C, McGeechan, K, Morris, J, Jeffery, H. Stillbirth risk in a second pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol, 2012; 119: 509–17.Google Scholar
Sharma, PP, Salihu, HM, Kirby, RS. Stillbirth recurrence in a population of relatively low-risk mothers. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2007; 21 (Suppl 1): 24–30.Google Scholar
Flenady, V, Koopmans, L, Middleton, P, et al. Major risk factors for stillbirth in high-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2011; 377: 1331–40.Google Scholar
Petersson, K, Bremme, K, Bottinga, R, et al. Diagnostic evaluation of intrauterine fetal deaths in Stockholm 1998–99. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2002; 81: 284–92.Google Scholar
Allen, VM, Joseph, K, Murphy, KE, Magee, LA, Ohlsson, A. The effect of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy on small for gestational age and stillbirth: a population based study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2004; 4: 17.Google Scholar
Davis, LE, Lucas, MJ, Hankins, GD, Roark, ML, Cunningham, FG. Thyrotoxicosis complicating pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 160: 63–70.Google Scholar
Benhadi, N, Wiersinga, WM, Reitsma, JB, Vrijkotte, TG, Bonsel, GJ. Higher maternal TSH levels in pregnancy are associated with increased risk for miscarriage, fetal or neonatal death. Eur J Endocrinol 2009; 160: 985–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vidaeff, AC, Yeomans, ER, Ramin, SM. Pregnancy in women with renal disease. Part I: general principles. Am J Perinatol 2008; 25: 385–97.Google Scholar
Oshiro, BT, Silver, RM, Scott, JR, Yu, H, Branch, DW. Antiphospholipid antibodies and fetal death. Obstet Gynecol 1996; 87: 489–93.Google Scholar
Rey, E, Kahn, SR, David, M, Shrier, I. Thrombophilic disorders and fetal loss: a meta-analysis. Lancet 2003; 361: 901–8.Google Scholar
Silver, RM, Zhao, Y, Spong, CY, et al. Prothrombin gene G20210A mutation and obstetric complications. Obstet Gynecol 2010; 115: 14–20.Google Scholar
Dizon-Townson, D, Miller, C, Sibai, B, et al. The relationship of the factor V Leiden mutation and pregnancy outcomes for mother and fetus. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 106: 517–24.Google Scholar
Said, JM, Higgins, JR, Moses, EK, et al. Inherited thrombophilia polymorphisms and pregnancy outcomes in nulliparous women. Obstet Gynecol 2010; 115: 5–13.Google Scholar
Korteweg, FJ, Bouman, K, Erwich, JJ, et al. Cytogenetic analysis after evaluation of 750 fetal deaths: proposal for diagnostic workup. Obstet Gynecol 2008; 111: 865–74.Google Scholar
Breed, AS, Mantingh, A, Vosters, R, et al. Follow-up and pregnancy outcome after a diagnosis of mosaicism in CVS. Prenat Diagn 1991; 11: 577–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wapner, RJ, Lewis, D. Genetics and metabolic causes of stillbirth. Semin Perinatol, 2002. 26: 70–4.Google Scholar
Pauli, RM, Reiser, CA. Wisconsin Stillbirth Service Program: II. Analysis of diagnoses and diagnostic categories in the first 1,000 referrals. Am J Med Genet 1994; 50: 135–53.Google Scholar
Laube, DW, Schauberger, CW. Fetomaternal bleeding as a cause for “unexplained” fetal death. Obstet Gynecol 1982; 60: 649–51.Google Scholar
Sebring, ES, Polesky, HF. Fetomaternal hemorrhage: incidence, risk factors, time of occurrence, and clinical effects. Transfusion 1990; 30: 344–57.Google Scholar
Ananth, CV, Berkowitz, GS, Savitz, DA, Lapinski, RH. Placental abruption and adverse perinatal outcomes. JAMA 1999; 282: 1646–51.Google Scholar
Korteweg, FJ, Gordijn, SJ, Timmer, A, et al. The Tulip classification of perinatal mortality: introduction and multidisciplinary inter-rater agreement. BJOG 2006; 113: 393–401.Google Scholar
Collins, JH. Umbilical cord accidents: human studies. Semin Perinatol 2002; 26: 79–82.Google Scholar
Lewi, L, Jani, J, Blickstein, I, et al. The outcome of monochorionic diamniotic twin gestations in the era of invasive fetal therapy: a prospective cohort study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2008; 199: 514.e1–8.Google Scholar
Moore, TR, Gale, S, Benirschke, K. Perinatal outcome of forty-nine pregnancies complicated by acardiac twinning. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1990; 163: 907–12.Google Scholar
Goldenberg, RL, McClure, EM, Bann, CM. The relationship of intrapartum and antepartum stillbirth rates to measures of obstetric care in developed and developing countries. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 2007; 86: 1303–9.Google Scholar
Page, JM, Christiansen-Lindquist, L, Thorsten, V, et al. Diagnostic tests for evaluation of stillbirth: results from the Stillbirth Collaborative Research Network. Obstet Gynecol 2017; 129: 699–706. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000001937.Google Scholar
Woodward, PJ, Sohaey, R, Harris, DP, et al. Postmortem fetal MR imaging: comparison with findings at autopsy. AJR Am J Roentgenol 1997; 168: 41–6.Google Scholar
Goldstein, DP, Reid, DE. Circulating fibrinolytic activity: a precursor of hypofibrinogenemia following fetal death in utero. Obstet Gynecol 1963; 22: 174–80.Google Scholar
Maslow, AD, Breen, TW, Sarna, MC, et al. Prevalence of coagulation abnormalities associated with intrauterine fetal death. Can J Anaesth 1996; 43: 1237–43.Google Scholar
Autry, AM, Hayes, EC, Jacobson, GF, Kirby, RS. A comparison of medical induction and dilation and evacuation for second-trimester abortion. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 187: 393–7.Google Scholar
Cowett, AA, Golub, RM, Grobman, WA. Cost-effectiveness of dilation and evacuation versus the induction of labor for second-trimester pregnancy termination. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006; 194: 768–73.Google Scholar
Bryant, AG, Grimes, DA, Garrett, JM, Stuart, GS. Second-trimester abortion for fetal anomalies or fetal death: labor induction compared with dilation and evacuation. Obstet Gynecol 2011; 117: 788–92. doi: 10.1097/AOG.0b013e31820c3d26.Google Scholar
ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 107: Induction of labor. Obstet Gynecol 2009; 114: 386–97.Google Scholar
Toaff, R, Ayalon, D, Gogol, G. Clinical use of high concentration oxytocin drip. Obstet Gynecol 1971; 37: 112–20.Google Scholar
Nakintu, N. A comparative study of vaginal misoprostol and intravenous oxytocin for induction of labour in women with intra uterine fetal death in Mulago Hospital, Uganda. Afr Health Sci 2001; 1: 55–9.Google Scholar
Ashok, PW, Templeton, A, Wagaarachchi, PT, Flett, GM. Midtrimester medical termination of pregnancy: a review of 1002 consecutive cases. Contraception 2004; 69: 51–8.Google Scholar
Goh, SE, Thong, KJ. Induction of second trimester abortion (12–20 weeks) with mifepristone and misoprostol: a review of 386 consecutive cases. Contraception 2006; 73: 516–19.Google Scholar
Rose, SB, Shand, C, Simmons, A. Mifepristone- and misoprostol-induced mid-trimester termination of pregnancy: a review of 272 cases. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 2006; 46: 479–85.Google Scholar
Ngoc, NT, Shochet, T, Raghavan, S, et al. Mifepristone and misoprostol compared with misoprostol alone for second-trimester abortion: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2011; 118: 601–8.Google Scholar
Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. The Care of Women Requesting Induced Abortion. Evidence-based Clinical Guideline No. 7. London: RCOG, 2011. www.rcog.org.uk/en/guidelines-research-services/guidelines/the-care-of-women-requesting-induced-abortion (accessed June 2019).Google Scholar
Berghella, V, Airoldi, J, O’Neill, AM, Einhorn, K, Hoffman, M. Misoprostol for second trimester pregnancy termination in women with prior caesarean: a systematic review. BJOG 2009; 116: 1151–7.Google Scholar
Silver, RM, Varner, MW, Reddy, U, et al. Work-up of stillbirth: a review of the evidence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007; 196: 433–44.Google Scholar
Ahlenius, I, Floberg, J, Thomassen, P. Sixty-six cases of intrauterine fetal death. A prospective study with an extensive test protocol. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1995; 74: 109–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Incerpi, MH, Miller, DA, Samadi, R, Settlage, RH, Goodwin, TM. Stillbirth evaluation: what tests are needed? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 178: 1121–5.Google Scholar
Thayyil, S, Cleary, JO, Sebire, NJ, et al. Post-mortem examination of human fetuses: a comparison of whole-body high-field MRI at 9.4 T with conventional MRI and invasive autopsy. Lancet 2009; 374: 467–75.Google Scholar
Committee Opinion No. 581: the use of chromosomal microarray analysis in prenatal diagnosis. Obstet Gynecol 2013; 122: 1374–7.Google Scholar
Reddy, UM, Page, GP, Saade, GR, et al. Karyotype versus microarray testing for genetic abnormalities after stillbirth. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 2185–93.Google Scholar
Smith, GC, Shah, I, Crossley, JA, et al. Pregnancy-associated plasma protein A and alpha-fetoprotein and prediction of adverse perinatal outcome. Obstet Gynecol 2006; 107: 161–6.Google Scholar
Smith, GC, Yu, CK, Papageorghiou, AT, et al. Maternal uterine artery Doppler flow velocimetry and the risk of stillbirth. Obstet Gynecol 2007; 109: 144–51.Google Scholar
ACOG Practice bulletin no. 134: fetal growth restriction. Obstet Gynecol 2013; 121: 1122–33.Google Scholar
Rai, R, Backos, M, Baxter, N, Chilcott, I, Regan, L. Recurrent miscarriage: an aspirin a day? Hum Reprod 2000; 15: 2220–3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frias, AE, Luikenaar, RA, Sullivan, AE, et al. Poor obstetric outcome in subsequent pregnancies in women with prior fetal death. Obstet Gynecol 2004; 104: 521–6.Google Scholar
Kaandorp, SP, Goddijn, M, van der Post, JA, et al. Aspirin plus heparin or aspirin alone in women with recurrent miscarriage. N Engl J Med 2010; 362: 1586–96.Google Scholar
Schisterman, EF, Silver, RM, Lesher, LL, et al. Preconception low-dose aspirin and pregnancy outcomes: results from the EAGeR randomised trial. Lancet 2014; 384: 29–36.Google Scholar
Weeks, JW, Asrat, T, Morgan, MA, et al, Antepartum surveillance for a history of stillbirth: when to begin? Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995; 172: 486–92.Google Scholar