Al Qahtani, D. A., Rotgans, J. I., Mamede, S., Al Alwan, I., Magzoub, M. E., Altayeb, F. M., … & Schmidt, H. G. (2016). Does time pressure have a negative effect on diagnostic accuracy? Academic Medicine, 91, 710–716.Google Scholar

Allen, J., Buffardi, L., & Hays, R. (1991). The relationship of simulator fidelity to task and performance variables. Report no. ARI-91–58. Alexandria, VA: Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.Google Scholar

Anastakis, D. J., Regehr, G., Reznick, R. K., Cusimano, M., Murnaghan, J., Brown, M., … & Hutchison, C. (1999). Assessment of technical skills transfer from the bench training model to the human model. American Journal of Surgery, 177, 167–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Atug, F., Castle, E. P., Srivastav, S. K., Burgess, S. V., Thomas, R., & Davis, R. (2006). Positive surgical margins in robotic-assisted radical prostatectomy: Impact of learning curve on oncologic outcomes. European Urology, 49, 866–872.Google Scholar

Balogh, E. P., Miller, B. T., & Ball, J. R. (2015). Improving diagnosis in medicine. Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.Google Scholar

Barrows, H. S., Norman, G. R., Neufeld, V. R., & Feightner, J. W. (1981). The clinical reasoning of randomly selected physicians in general medical practice. Clinical and Investigative Medicine, 5, 49–55.Google Scholar

Barsuk, J. H., Cohen, E. R., Caprio, T., McGaghie, W. C., Simuni, T., & Wayne, D. B. (2012). Simulation-based education with mastery learning improves residents’ lumbar puncture skills. Neurology, 79, 132–137.Google Scholar

Barsuk, J. H., Cohen, E. R., Feinglass, J., McGaghie, W. C., & Wayne, D. B. (2009). Use of simulation-based education to reduce catheter-related bloodstream infections. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169, 420–423.Google Scholar

Barsuk, J. H., Cohen, E. R., McGaghie, W. C., & Wayne, D. B. (2010). Long-term retention of central venous catheter insertion skills after simulation-based mastery learning. Academic Medicine, 85, S9–S12.Google Scholar

Berstein, N. (1996). On dexterity and its development. In Latash, M. L. & Turvey, M. T. (eds.), Dexterity and its development (pp. 3–244). Hillside, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar

Berwick, D. M. (2015a). Measuring surgical outcomes for improvement: Was Codman wrong? Journal of the American Medical Association, 313, 469–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Berwick, D. M. (2015b). Postgraduate education of physicians: Professional self-regulation and external accountability. Journal of the American Medical Association, 313, 1803–1804.Google Scholar

Bilimoria, K. Y., Phillips, J. D., Rock, C. E., Hayman, A., Prystowsky, J. B., & Bentrem, D. J. (2009). Effect of surgeon training, specialization, and experience on outcomes for cancer surgery: A systematic review of the literature. Annals of Surgical Oncology, 16, 1799–1808.Google Scholar

Bond, W. F., Deitrick, L. M., Arnold, D. C., Kostenbader, M., Barr, G. C., Kimmel, S. R., & Worrilow, C. C. (2004). Using simulation to instruct emergency medicine residents in cognitive forcing strategies. Academic Medicine, 79, 438–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bordage, G. (1994). Elaborated knowledge: A key to successful diagnostic thinking. Academic Medicine, 69, 883–885.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bordage, G., & Zacks, R. (1984). The structure of medical knowledge in the memories of medical students and general practitioners: Categories and prototypes. Medical Education, 18, 406–416.Google Scholar

Brooks, L. R., Norman, G. R., & Allen, S. W. (1991). Role of specific similarity in a medical diagnostic task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 120, 278–287.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Carroll, J. (1963). A model of school learning. The Teachers College Record, 64, 723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Case, S. M., & Swanson, D. B. (1993). Validity of NBME Part I and Part II scores for selection of residents in orthopaedic surgery, dermatology, and preventive medicine. Academic Medicine, 68, S51–S56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chamberland, M., Mamede, S., St-Onge, C., Setrakian, J., Bergeron, L., & Schmidt, H. (2015). Self-explanation in learning clinical reasoning: The added value of examples and prompts. Medical Education, 49, 193–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chamberland, M., St‐Onge, C., Setrakian, J., Lanthier, L., Bergeron, L., Bourget, A., … & Rikers, R. (2011). The influence of medical students’ self‐explanations on diagnostic performance. Medical Education, 45, 688–695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Charness, N., Tuffiash, M., Krampe, R., Reingold, E., & Vasyukova, E. (2005). The role of deliberate practice in chess expertise. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 151–165.Google Scholar

Cho, U. H., Yu, W., & Kyung, H. M. (2010). Root contact during drilling for microimplant placement: Affect of surgery site and operator expertise. The Angle Orthodontist, 80, 130–136.Google Scholar

Choudhry, N. K., Fletcher, R. H., & Soumerai, S. B. (2005). Systematic review: The relationship between clinical experience and quality of health care. Annals of Internal Medicine, 142, 260–273.Google Scholar

Christensen, C., Heckerling, P., Mackasey-Amiti, M., Bernstein, L., & Elstein, A. (1995). Pervasiveness of framing effects among physicians and medical students. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 8, 169–180.Google Scholar

Cook, D. A., Hamstra, S. J., Brydges, R., Zendejas, B., Szostek, J. H., Wang, A. T., … & Hatala, R. (2013). Comparative effectiveness of instructional design features in simulation-based education: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Medical Teacher, 35, 867–898.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cook, D. A., Hatala, R., Brydges, R., Zendejas, B., Szostek, J. H., Wang, A. T., … & Hamstra, S. J. (2011). Technology-enhanced simulation for health professions education: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 306, 978–988.Google Scholar

Crochet, P., Aggarwal, R., Dubb, S. S., Ziprin, P., Rajaretnam, N., Grantcharov, T., … & Darzi, A. (2011). Deliberate practice on a virtual reality laparoscopic simulator enhances the quality of surgical technical skills. Annals of Surgery, 253, 1216–1222.Google Scholar

Croskerry, P. (2003). The importance of cognitive errors in diagnosis and strategies to minimize them. Academic Medicine, 78, 775–780.Google Scholar

Datta, V., Chang, A., Mackay, S., & Darzi, A. (2002). The relationship between motion analysis and surgical technical assessments. American Journal of Surgery, 184, 70–73.Google Scholar

Davids, K. W., Button, C., & Bennett, S. J. (2008). Dynamics of skill acquisition: A constraints-led approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Google Scholar

Durning, S. J., Artino, A. R., Holmboe, E., Beckman, T. J., van der Vleuten, C., & Schuwirth, L. (2010). Aging and cognitive performance: Challenges and implications for physicians practicing in the 21st century. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 30, 153–160.Google Scholar

Durning, S. J., La Rochelle, J., Pangaro, L., Artino, A. R. Jr, Boulet, J., van der Vleuten, C., & Schuwirth, L. (2012). Does the authenticity of preclinical teaching format affect subsequent clinical clerkship outcomes? A prospective randomized crossover trial. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 24, 177–182.Google Scholar

Elliott, D., Grierson, L. E. M., Hayes, S. J., & Lyons, J. (2011). Action representations in perception, motor control and learning: Implications for medical education. Medical Education, 45, 119–131.Google Scholar

Elstein, A. S. (1999). Heuristics and biases: Selected errors in clinical reasoning. Academic Medicine, 74, 791–794.Google Scholar

Elstein, A. S., Shulman, L. S., & Sprafka, S. A. (1978). Medical problem solving: An analysis of clinical reasoning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Ericsson, K. A. (2004). Deliberate practice and the acquisition and maintenance of expert performance in medicine and related domains. Academic Medicine, 79, S70–S81.Google Scholar

Ericsson, K. A. (2011). The surgeon’s expertise. In Fry, H. & and Kneebone, R. (eds.), Surgical education: Theorising an emerging domain (pp. 107–121). Dordrecht: Springer.Google Scholar

Ericsson, K. A. (2016). Summing up hours of any type of practice versus identifying optimal practice activities: Comments on Macnamara, Moreau, and Hambrick (2015). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 351–354.Google Scholar

Ericsson, K. A., & Charness, N. (1994). Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition. American Psychologist, 49, 725–747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363–406.Google Scholar

Eva, K. W. (2002). The aging physician: Changes in cognitive processing and their impact on medical practice. Academic Medicine, 77, S1–S6.Google Scholar

Eva, K. W., Lohfeld, L., Dhaliwal, G., Mylopoulos, M., Cook, D. A., & Norman, G. R. (2011). Modern conceptions of elite medical practice among internal medicine faculty members. Academic Medicine, 86, S50–S54.Google Scholar

Eva, K. W., & Norman, G. R. (2005). Heuristics and biases: A biased perspective on clinical reasoning. Medical Education, 39, 870–872.Google Scholar

Evans, J. S. B. (2008). Dual processing accounts of reasoning, judgment and social cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 255–278.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Evans, J. S. B., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8, 223–241.Google Scholar

Evans, K. K., Georgian-Smith, D., Tambouret, R., Birdwell, R. L., & Wolfe, J. M. (2013). The gist of the abnormal: Above-chance medical decision making in the blink of an eye. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20, 1170–1175.Google Scholar

Feltovich, P. J., & Barrows, H. S. (1984). Issues of generality in medical problem solving. In Schmidt, H. G. & De Volder, M. L. (eds.), Tutorials in problem-based learning: A new direction in teaching the health professions (pp. 128–142). Assen: Van Gorcum.Google Scholar

Frank, J. R., & Danoff, D. (2007). The CanMEDS initiative: Implementing an outcomes-based framework of physician competencies. Medical Teacher, 29, 642–647.Google Scholar

Frischknecht, A. C., Kasten, S. J., Hamstra, S. J., Perkins, N. C., Gillespie, R. B., Armstrong, T. J., & Minter, R. M. (2013). The objective assessment of experts’ and novices’ suturing skills using an image analysis program. Academic Medicine, 88, 260–264.Google Scholar

Gauger, P. G., Hauge, L. S., Andreatta, P. B., Hamstra, S. J., Hillard, M. L., Arble, E. P., & Minter, R. M. (2010). Laparoscopic simulation training with proficiency targets improves practice and performance of novice surgeons. American Journal of Surgery, 199, 72–80.Google Scholar

Ghaderi, I., Manji, F., Park, Y. S., Juul, D., Ott, M., Harris, I., & Farrell, T. M. (2015). Technical skills assessment toolbox: A review using the unitary framework of validity. Annals of Surgery, 261, 251–262.Google Scholar

Glaser, R. (1984). Education and thinking: The role of knowledge. American Psychologist, 39, 93–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Goss, J. R. (1996). Teaching clinical reasoning to second-year medical students. Academic Medicine, 71, 349–352.Google Scholar

Graber, M. L., Franklin, N., & Gordon, R. (2005). Diagnostic error in internal medicine. Archives of Internal Medicine, 165, 1493–1499.Google Scholar

Grierson, L. E. M., Lyons, J., & Dubrowski, A. (2013). Gaze-down endoscopic practise leads to better novice performance on gaze-up displays. Medical Education, 47, 167–172.Google Scholar

Grober, E. D., Hamstra, S. J., Wanzel, K. R., Reznick, R. K., Matsumoto, E. D., Sidhu, R. S., … & Jarvi, K. A. (2004). The educational impact of bench model fidelity on the acquisition of technical skill. Annals of Surgery, 240, 374–381.Google Scholar

Gruppen, L. D., Woolliscroft, J. O., & Wolf, F. M. (1987). The contribution of different components of the clinical encounter in generating and eliminating diagnostic hypotheses. In Dabney, D. S. (ed.), Research in medical education: Proceedings of the annual conference on research in medical education (pp. 242–247). Washington, DC: Association of American Medical Colleges.Google Scholar

Guyatt, G., Cairns, J., Churchill, D., Cook, D., Haynes, B., Hirsh, J., … & Sackett, D. (1992). Evidence-based medicine: A new approach to teaching the practice of medicine. Journal of the American Medical Association, 268, 2420–2425.Google Scholar

Hamstra, S. J., Brydges, R., Hatala, R., Zendejas, B., & Cook, D. A. (2014). Reconsidering fidelity in simulation-based training. Academic Medicine, 89, 387–392.Google Scholar

Harden, R. M., & Gleeson, F. A. (1979). Assessment of clinical competence using an objective structured clinical examination (OSCE). Journal of Medical Education, 13, 39–54.Google Scholar

Harvey, A., Bandiera, G., Nathens, A. B., & LeBlanc, V. R. (2012). Impact of stress on resident performance in simulated trauma scenarios. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 72, 497–503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Harvey, A., Nathens, A. B., Bandiera, G., & LeBlanc, V. R. (2010). Threat and challenge: Cognitive appraisal and stress responses in simulated trauma resuscitations. Journal of Medical Education, 44, 587–594.Google Scholar

Hatala, R., Brooks, L. R., & Norman, G. R. (2003). Practice makes perfect: The critical role of mixed practice in the acquisition of ECG interpretation skills. Advances in Health Sciences Education: Theory and Practice, 8, 17–26.Google Scholar

Hatala, R., Norman, G. R, & Brooks, L. R. (1999). Impact of a clinical scenario on accuracy of electrocardiogram interpretation. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 14, 126–129.Google Scholar

Ilgen, J. S., Bowen, J. L., McIntyre, L. A., Banh, K. V., Barnes, D., Coates, W. C., … & Eva, K. W. (2013). Comparing diagnostic performance and utility of clinical vignette-based assessment under testing conditions designed to encourage either automatic or reflective thought. Academic Medicine, 88, 1545–1551.Google Scholar

Issenberg, S. B., McGaghie, W. C., Petrusa, E. R., Gordon, D. L., & Scalese, R. J. (2005). Features and uses of high-fidelity medical simulations that lead to effective learning: A BEME systematic review. Medical Teacher, 27, 10–28.Google Scholar

Issenberg, S. B., & Scalese, R. J. (2008). Simulation in health care education. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 51, 31–46.Google Scholar

Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.Google Scholar

Kassirer, J. P. (2010). Teaching clinical reasoning: Case-based and coached. Academic Medicine, 85, 1118–1124.Google Scholar

Kelles, S. M. B., Barreto, S. M., & Guerra, H. L. (2009). Mortality and hospital stay after bariatric surgery in 2,167 patients: Influence of the surgeon expertise. Obesity Surgery, 19, 1228–1235.Google Scholar

Kessler, D. O., Auerbach, M., Pusic, M., Tunik, M. G., & Foltin, J. C. (2011). A randomized trial of simulation-based deliberate practice for infant lumbar puncture skills. Simulation in Healthcare, 6, 197–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kohn, L. T., Corrigan, J. M., & Donaldson, M. S. (2000). To err is human: Building a safer health system. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar

Kundel, H. L., & Nodine, C. F. (1975). Interpreting chest radiographs without visual search 1. Radiology, 116, 527–532.Google Scholar

La Rochelle, J. S., Durning, S. J., Pangaro, L. N., Artino, A. R., van der Vleuten, C. P., & Schuwirth, L. (2011). Authenticity of instruction and student performance: A prospective randomised trial. Medical Education, 45, 807–817.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

LeBlanc, V. R., Regehr, C., Tavares, W., Scott, A. K., MacDonald, R., & King, K. (2012). The impact of stress on paramedic performance during simulated critical events. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 27, 369–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Lee, A., Joynt, G. M., Lee, A. K. T, Ho, A. M. H., Groves, M., Vlantis, A. C., … & Aun, C. S. T. (2010). Using illness scripts to teach clinical reasoning skills to medical students. Family Medicine, 42, 255–261.Google Scholar

Li, J., Grierson, L. E., Wu, M. X., Breuer, R., & Carnahan, H. (2013). Perceptual motor features of expert acupuncture lifting-thrusting skills. Acupuncture in Medicine, 31, 172–177.Google Scholar

Littlefield, J. H., Hahn, H. B., & Meyer, A. S. (1999). Evaluation of a role-play learning exercise in an ambulatory clinic setting. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 4, 167–173.Google Scholar

Logan, G. D. (1988). Toward an instance theory of automatization. Psychological Review, 95, 492–527.Google Scholar

Lopes, L. L. (1991). The rhetoric of irrationality. Theory and Psychology, 1, 65–82.Google Scholar

Mamede, S., Schmidt, H., & Penaforte, J. C. (2008). Effects of reflective practice on the accuracy of medical diagnosis. Medical Education, 42, 468–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mamede, S., Schmidt, H. G., Rikers, R. M., Custers, E. J., Splinter, T. A., & van Saase, J. L. (2010). Conscious thought beats deliberation without attention in diagnostic decision-making: At least when you are an expert. Psychological Research, 74, 586–592.Google Scholar

Mamede, S., van Gog, T., Moura, A. S., de Faria, R., Peixoto, J. M., Rikers, R. M., & Schmidt, H. G. (2012). Reflection as a strategy to foster medical students’ acquisition of diagnostic competence. Medical Education, 46, 464–472.Google Scholar

Mamede, S., van Gog, T., Sampaio, A. M., de Faria, R. M. D., Maria, J. P., & Schmidt, H. G. (2014). How can students’ diagnostic competence benefit most from practice with clinical cases? The effects of structured reflection on future diagnosis of the same and novel diseases. Academic Medicine, 89, 121–127.Google Scholar

Mamede, S., van Gog, T., Schuit, S. C., Van den Berge, K., Van Daele, P. L., Bueving, H., … & Schmidt, H. G. (2017). Do patients’ disruptive behaviours influence the accuracy of a doctor’s diagnosis? A randomised experiment. BMJ Quality and Safety.Google Scholar

Mamede, S., van Gog, T., Van den Berge, K., Rikers, R. M., van Saase, J. L., van Guldener, C., & Schmidt, H. G. (2010). Effect of availability bias and reflective reasoning on diagnostic accuracy among internal medicine residents. Journal of the American Medical Association, 304, 1198–1203.Google Scholar

Mandin, H., Harasym, P., Eagle, C., & Watanabe, M. (1995). Developing a “clinical presentation” curriculum at the University of Calgary. Academic Medicine, 70, 186–193.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Matsumoto, E. D., Hamstra, S. J., Radomski, S. B., & Cusimano, M. D. (2002). The effect of bench model fidelity on endourological skills: A randomized controlled study. Journal of Urology, 167, 1243–1247.Google Scholar

McGaghie, W. C. (2015). Mastery learning: Is it time for medical education to join the 21st century? Academic Medicine, 90, 1438–1441.Google Scholar

McGaghie, W. C., Issenberg, S. B., Cohen, M. E. R., Barsuk, J. H., & Wayne, D. B. (2011). Does simulation-based medical education with deliberate practice yield better results than traditional clinical education? A meta-analytic comparative review of the evidence. Academic Medicine, 86, 706–711.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

McLaughlin, K., Eva, K. W., & Norman, G. R. (2014). Reexamining our bias against heuristics. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 19, 457–464.Google Scholar

Mercuri, M., Sherbino, J., Sedran, R. J., Frank, J. R., Gafni, A., & Norman, G. (2015). When guidelines don’t guide: The effect of patient context on management decisions based on clinical practice guidelines. Academic Medicine, 90, 191–196.Google Scholar

Monteiro, S. D., Sherbino, J. D., Ilgen, J. S., Dore, K. L., Wood, T. J., Young, M. E., … & Howey, E. (2015). Disrupting diagnostic reasoning: Do interruptions, instructions, and experience affect the diagnostic accuracy and response time of residents and emergency physicians? Academic Medicine, 90, 511–517.Google Scholar

Mosing, M. A., Madison, G., Pedersen, N. L., Kuja-Halkola, R., & Ullén, F. (2014). Practice does not make perfect: No causal effect of music practice on music ability. Psychological Science, 25, 1795–1803.Google Scholar

Nasca, T. J., Day, S. H., & Amis, E. S. Jr (2010). The new recommendations on duty hours from the ACGME Task Force. New England Journal of Medicine, 363, e3.Google Scholar

Nendaz, M. R., Raetzo, M. A., Junod, A. F., & Vu, N. V. (2000). Teaching diagnostic skills: Clinical vignettes or chief complaints? Advances in Health Sciences Education, 5, 3–10.Google Scholar

Newell, K. M. (1989). On task and theory specificity. Journal of Motor Behavior, 21, 92–96.Google Scholar

Norcini, J. J., Boulet, J. R., Opalek, A., & Dauphinee, W. D. (2013). Outcomes of cardiac surgery: Associations with physician characteristics, institutional characteristics, and transfers of care. Medical Care, 51, 1034–1039.Google Scholar

Norcini, J. J., Kimball, H. R., & Lipner, R. S. (2000). Certification and specialization: Do they matter in the outcome of acute myocardial infarction? Academic Medicine, 75, 1193–1198.Google Scholar

Norcini, J. J., Lipner, R. S., & Kimball, H. R. (2002). Certifying examination performance and patient outcomes following acute myocardial infarction. Medical Education, 36, 853–859.Google Scholar

Norman, G. (2005). Research in clinical reasoning: Past history and current trends. Medical Education, 39, 418–427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Norman, G., Dore, K., & Grierson, L. (2012). The minimal relationship between simulation fidelity and transfer of learning. Medical Education, 46, 636–647.Google Scholar

Norman, G. R., Rosenthal, D., Brooks, L. R., Allen, S. W., & Muzzin, L. J. (1989). The development of expertise in dermatology. Archives of Dermatology, 125, 1063–1068.Google Scholar

Norman, G., Sherbino, J., Dore, K., Wood, T., Young, M., Gaissmaier, W., … & Monteiro, S. (2014). The etiology of diagnostic errors: A controlled trial of system 1 versus system 2 reasoning. Academic Medicine, 89, 277–284.Google Scholar

Norman, G. R., Trott, A. D., Brooks, L. R., & Smith, E. K. M. (1994). Cognitive differences in clinical reasoning related to postgraduate training. Teaching and Learning in Medicine: An International Journal, 6, 114–120.Google Scholar

Norman, G. R., Tugwell, P., Feightner, J. W., Muzzin, L. J., & Jacoby, L. L. (1985). Knowledge and clinical problem‐solving. Medical Education, 19, 344–356.Google Scholar

Norman, G., Young, M., & Brooks, L. (2007). Non‐analytical models of clinical reasoning: The role of experience. Medical Education, 41, 1140–1145.Google Scholar

Park, J., MacRae, H., Musselman, L. J., Rossos, P., Hamstra, S. J., Wolman, S., & Reznick, R. J. (2007). Randomized controlled trial of virtual reality simulator training: Transfer to live patients. American Journal of Surgery, 194, 205–211.Google Scholar

Patel, V. L., Evans, D. A., & Groen, G. J. (1989). Biomedical knowledge and clinical reasoning. In Evans, D. A. & Patel, V. L. (eds.), Cognitive science in medicine: Biomedical modeling (pp. 53–112). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Patel, V. L., & Groen, G. J. (1986). Knowledge based solution strategies in medical reasoning. Cognitive Science, 10, 91–116.Google Scholar

Perkins, D. N., & Salomon, G. (1989). Are cognitive skills context-bound? Educational Researcher, 18, 16–25.Google Scholar

Pottier, P., Dejoie, T., Hardouin, J. B., Le Loupp, A. G., Planchon, B., Bonnaud, A., & Leblanc, V. R. (2013). Effect of stress on clinical reasoning during simulated ambulatory consultations. Medical Teacher, 35, 472–480.Google Scholar

Prystowsky, J. B. (2005). Are young surgeons competent to perform alimentary tract surgery? Archives of Surgery, 140, 495–502.Google Scholar

Pusic, M., Boutis, K., Hatala, R. M., & Cook, D. A. (2015). Learning curves in health professions education. Academic Medicine, 90, 1034–1042.Google Scholar

Pusic, M., Pecaric, M., & Boutis, K. (2011). How much practice is enough? Using learning curves to assess the deliberate practice of radiograph interpretation. Academic Medicine, 86, 731–736.Google Scholar

Ramsey, P. G., Carline, J. D., Inui, T. S., Larson, E. B., LoGerfo, J. P., & Wenrich, M. D. (1989). Predictive validity of certification by the American Board of Internal Medicine. Annals of Internal Medicine, 110, 719.Google Scholar

Rattner, S. L., Louis, D. Z, Rabinowitz, C., Gottlieb, J. E., Nasca, T. J., Markham, F. W., … & Gonnella, J. S. (2001). Documenting and comparing medical students’ clinical experiences. Journal of the American Medical Association, 286, 1035–1040.Google Scholar

Rehmann, A. J., Mitman, R. D., & Reynolds, M. C. (1995). A handbook of flight simulation fidelity requirements for human factors research. Wright-Patterson AFB, OH: Crew Systems Ergonomics Information Analysis Center.Google Scholar

Reilly, J. B., Ogdie, A. R., Van Feldt, J. M., & Myers, J. S. (2013). Teaching about how doctors think: A longitudinal curriculum in cognitive bias and diagnostic error for residents. BMJ Quality and Safety, 22, 1044–1055.Google Scholar

Reznick, R., Regehr, G., MacRae, H., Martin, J., & McCulloch, W. (1997). Testing technical skill via an innovative “bench station” examination. American Journal of Surgery, 173, 226–230.Google Scholar

Rogers, J. C., Swee, D. E., & Ullian, J. A. (1991). Teaching medical decision-making and students’ clinical problem-solving skills. Medical Teacher, 13, 157–164.Google Scholar

Rojas, D., Cristancho, S., Rueda, C., Grierson, L., Monclou, A. A., & Dubrowski, A. (2010). The validation of an instrumented simulator for the assessment of performance and outcome of knot tying skill: A pilot study. Studies in Health Information Technology and Informatics, 163: 517–523.Google Scholar

Round, A. P. (1999). Teaching clinical reasoning: A preliminary controlled study. Medical Education, 33, 480–483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Schmidt, H. G., & Boshuizen, H. P. (1993). On acquiring expertise in medicine. Educational Psychology Review, 5, 205–221.Google Scholar

Schmidt, H. G., & Mamede, S. (2015). How to improve the teaching of clinical reasoning: A narrative review and a proposal. Medical Education, 49, 961–973.Google Scholar

Schmidt, H. G., Norman, G. R., & Boshuizen, H. P. (1990). A cognitive perspective on medical expertise: Theory and implication. Academic Medicine, 65, 611–621.Google Scholar

Schmidt, H. G., & Rikers, R. M. (2007). How expertise develops in medicine: Knowledge encapsulation and illness script formation. Medical Education, 41, 1133–1139.Google Scholar

Schmidt, R. A. (1975). A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. Psychological Review, 82, 225–260.Google Scholar

Sherbino, J., Dore, K. L., Siu, E., & Norman, G. R. (2011). The effectiveness of cognitive forcing strategies to decrease diagnostic error: An exploratory study. Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 23, 78–84.Google Scholar

Sherbino, J., Dore, K. L., Wood, T. J., Young, M. E., Gaissmaier, W., Kreuger, S., & Norman, G. R. (2012). The relationship between response time and diagnostic accuracy. Academic Medicine, 87, 785–791.Google Scholar

Sherbino, J., Kulasegaram, K., Howey, E., & Norman, G. (2014). Ineffectiveness of cognitive forcing strategies to reduce biases in diagnostic reasoning: A controlled trial. Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine, 16, 34–40.Google Scholar

Smith, E. R., & DeCoster, J. (2000). Dual-process models in social and cognitive psychology: Conceptual integration and links to underlying memory systems. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4, 108–131.Google Scholar

Starkes, J. L., Payk, I., Jennen, P., & Leclair, D. (1993). A stitch in time: Cognitive issues in microsurgery. Advances in Psychology, 102, 225–240.Google Scholar

Stillman, P. L., Swanson, D. B., Smee, S., Stillman, A. E., Ebert, T. H., Emmel, V. S., … & Levenson, D. J. (1986). Assessing clinical skills of residents with standardized patients. Annals of Internal Medicine, 105, 762–771.Google Scholar

Tamblyn, R., Abrahamowicz, M., Dauphinee, D., Wenghofer, E., Jacques, A., Klass, D., … & Du Berger, R. (2007). Physician scores on a national clinical skills examination as predictors of complaints to medical regulatory authorities. Journal of the American Medical Association, 298, 993–1001.Google Scholar

Taylor, K., & Rohrer, D. (2010). The effects of interleaved practice. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 837–848.Google Scholar

Tsuda, S., Scott, D., Doyle, J., & Jones, D. B. (2009). Surgical skills training and simulation. Current Problems in Surgery, 46, 271–370.Google Scholar

Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185, 1124–1131.Google Scholar

Ulmer, C., Wolman, D., & Johns, M. (eds.) (2008). Resident duty hours: Enhancing sleep, supervision, and safety. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar

Van Sickle, K. R., Ritter, E. M., McClusky, D. A. III, Lederman, A., Baghai, M., Gallagher, A. G., & Smith, C. D. (2007). Attempted establishment of proficiency levels for laparoscopic performance on a national scale using simulation: The results from the 2004 SAGES Minimally Invasive Surgical Trainer—Virtual Reality (MIST-VR) learning center study. Surgical Endoscopy, 21, 5–10.Google Scholar

Vickers, A. J., Bianco, F. J., Gonen, M., Cronin, A. M., Eastham, J. A., Schrag, D., … & Scardino, P. T. (2008). Effects of pathologic stage on the learning curve for radical prostatectomy: Evidence that recurrence in organ-confined cancer is largely related to inadequate surgical technique. European Urology, 53, 960–966.Google Scholar

Vickers, A. J., Bianco, F. J., Serio, A. M., Eastham, J. A., Schrag, D., Klein, E. A., … & Scardino, P. T. (2007). The surgical learning curve for prostate cancer control after radical prostatectomy. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 99, 1171–1177.Google Scholar

Vickers, A. J., Savage, C. J., Hruza, M., Tuerk, I., Koenig, P., Martínez-Piñeiro, L., … & Guillonneau, B. (2009). The surgical learning curve for laparoscopic radical prostatectomy: A retrospective cohort study. The Lancet Oncology, 10, 475–480.Google Scholar

Wanzel, K. R., Hamstra, S. J., Anastakis, D. J., Matsumoto, E. D., & Cusimano, M. D. (2002). Effect of visual-spatial ability on learning of spatially-complex surgical skills. The Lancet, 359, 230–231.Google Scholar

Wayne, D. B., Barsuk, J. H., O’Leary, K. J., Fudala, M. J., & McGaghie, W. C. (2008). Mastery learning of thoracentesis skills by internal medicine residents using simulation technology and deliberate practice. Journal of Hospital Medicine, 3, 48–54.Google Scholar

Weber, E., Bockenholt, U., Hilton, D. J., & Wallace, B. (1993). Determinants of diagnostic hypothesis generation: Effects of information, base rates and experience. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19, 1151–1164.Google Scholar

Wimmers, P. F., Schmidt, H. G., & Splinter, T. A. (2006). Influence of clerkship experiences on clinical competence. Medical Education, 40, 450–458.Google Scholar

Windish, D. M., Price, E. G., Clever, S. L., Magaziner, J. L., & Thomas, P. A. (2005). Teaching medical students the important connection between communication and clinical reasoning. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 20, 1108–1113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Woodrow, S. I., Segouin, C., Armbruster, J., Hamstra, S. J., & Hodges, B. J. (2006). Duty hour reforms in the United States, France, and Canada: Is it time to refocus on education? Academic Medicine, 81, 1045–1051.Google Scholar

Woods, N. N., Brooks, L. R., & Norman, G. R. (2005). The value of basic science in clinical diagnosis: Creating coherence among signs and symptoms. Medical Education, 39, 107–112.Google Scholar

Woods, N. N., Brooks, L. R., & Norman, G. R. (2007). It all makes sense: Biomedical knowledge, causal connections and memory in the novice diagnostician. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 12, 405–415.Google Scholar

Zendejas, B., Brydges, R., Hamstra, S. J., & Cook, D. A. (2013). State of the evidence on simulation-based training for laparoscopic surgery: A systematic review. Annals of Surgery, 257, 586–593.Google Scholar

Zendejas, B., Cook, D. A., Bingener, J., Huebner, M., Dunn, W. F., Sarr, M. G., & Farley, D. R. (2011). Simulation-based mastery learning improves patient outcomes in laparoscopic inguinal hernia repair: A randomized controlled trial. Annals of Surgery, 254, 502–509.Google Scholar

Zwaan, L., Monteiro, S., Sherbino, J., Ilgen, J., Howey, B., & Norman, G. (2017). Is bias in the eye of the beholder? A vignette study to assess recognition of cognitive biases in clinical case workups. BMJ Quality and Safety, 26, 104–110.Google Scholar

Zwaan, L., Thijs, A., Wagner, C., van der Wal, G., & Timmermans, D. R. (2012). Relating faults in diagnostic reasoning with diagnostic errors and patient harm. Academic Medicine, 87, 149–156.Google Scholar