Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- Preface
- Acknowledgements
- Introduction
- 1 The growing of apples and pears
- 2 Apples and pears and their relatives
- 3 Apple and pear root systems: induction, development, structure and function
- 4 The graft union, grafting and budding
- 5 Mechanisms of rootstock and interstock effects on scion vigour
- 6 The shoot system
- 7 Leaves, canopies and light interception
- 8 Photosynthesis, respiration, and carbohydrate transport, partitioning and storage
- 9 Flowers and fruits
- 10 Eating quality and its retention
- 11 Mineral nutrition
- 12 Water relations
- 13 Diseases, pests, and resistance to these
- 14 Biotechnology of apples and pears
- Cultivar Index
- General Index
- References
2 - Apples and pears and their relatives
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 13 August 2009
Book contents
- Frontmatter
- Contents
- Preface
- Acknowledgements
- Introduction
- 1 The growing of apples and pears
- 2 Apples and pears and their relatives
- 3 Apple and pear root systems: induction, development, structure and function
- 4 The graft union, grafting and budding
- 5 Mechanisms of rootstock and interstock effects on scion vigour
- 6 The shoot system
- 7 Leaves, canopies and light interception
- 8 Photosynthesis, respiration, and carbohydrate transport, partitioning and storage
- 9 Flowers and fruits
- 10 Eating quality and its retention
- 11 Mineral nutrition
- 12 Water relations
- 13 Diseases, pests, and resistance to these
- 14 Biotechnology of apples and pears
- Cultivar Index
- General Index
- References
Summary
Taxonomy
Apples and pears belong to the Rosaceae, subfamily Pomoideae, the pome fruits. Other members of this subfamily include quince and medlar. The flowers of the Rosaceae are actinomorphic with 5 sepals, 5 petals, numerous stamens and either one compound pistil or many simple pistils. The number of styles equals the number of carpels. The Pomoideae have mixed flower buds containing both leaf and flower initials, an epigynous ovary and 2–5 carpels. The Pomoideae have a basic chromosome number of 17 compared with 7–9 for the other subfamilies of Rosaceae.
The Malus (apple) inflorescence is determinate but the descriptive terminology is disputed (Pratt, 1988). It is variously described as a corymb, a corymbose raceme, a cyme and a false cyme. Pyrus (pear) inflorescences have been described as umbel-like simple corymbs (Clapham, Tutin and Warburg, 1952) and as racemes (Bell et al. 1996). Cydonia (quince) flowers are solitary.
The typical apple flower (see also Chapter 9) has 5 petals, varying from white to deep pink, 5 sepals, 20 stamens in three whorls (10 + 5 + 5) with yellow anthers, and a pistil which divides into five styles united at the base. The ovary has 5 locules, each usually containing 2 ovules giving a maximum seed content of 10 although some cultivars may have up to 30 (Janick et al., 1996). P. communis flowers typically have 5, usually white, petals, 5 sepals and 20–30 stamens with red or purple anthers.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- The Biology of Apples and Pears , pp. 22 - 83Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2003
References
ASHS (1997). The Brooks and Olmo Register of Fruit & Nut Varieties, 3rd edn. Alexandria: American Society for Horticultural Science
, , and (1996). Rootstock affects ripening, colour and shape of ‘Starkspur Supreme Delicious’ apples in the 1984 NC-140 co-operative planting. Fruit Varieties Journal 50, 45–53Google Scholar
Barlow, H. W. B. and Smith, J. G. (1971). Effect of cropping on growth of the apple tree. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1970, 52
, , , , , , , , , and (1997b). Performance of ‘Gala’ at year 5 with eight apple rootstocks in an 8-location North American NC-140 trial. Acta Horticulturae 451, 129–35CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1997a). Tree size, yield and biennial bearing relationships with 40 apple rootstocks and three scion cultivars. Acta Horticulturae 451, 105–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1981). Investigations on virus-indexed and virus-free plants of different clones of M.9 apple rootstock. Acta Horticulturae 114, 171–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, R. L., Quamme, H. A., Layne, R. E. C. and Skirvin, R. M. (1996). Pears. In Fruit Breeding, Vol. I. Tree and Tropical Fruits, ed. J. Janick and J. N. Moore, pp. 441–514. New York: John Wiley and Sons
Belrose (1996). World Apple Review 1996. Pullman, WA: Belrose Inc
Belrose (1997). World Apple Review 1997. Pullman, WA: Belrose Inc
(1988). Behaviour of some apple cultivars in the subtropical region of Santa Catarina, Brazil. Acta Horticulturae 232, 46–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blasco, A. B. (1976). Rootstock effects on growth and cropping of apples with special reference to fruit quality. PhD thesis, University of London
Bultitude, J. (1983). Apples. A Guide to the Identification of International Varieties. London: MacmillanCrossRef
(1981). The effects of viruses on the growth, yield and quality of three apple cultivars on healthy and infected clones of four rootstocks. Acta Horticulturae, 114, 185–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1984). Performance of three quince rootstocks for pear. Acta Horticulturae 161, 231–4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Childers, N. F. (1983). Modern Fruit Science. Gainesville, FL: Horticultural Publications
Clapham, A. R., Tutin, T. G. and Warburg, E. F. (1952). Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Combrink, J. C. (1996). Cold-storage requirements of specific commodities. In Integrated Management of Post-harvest Quality, ed. J. C. Combrink, pp. 120–9. Stellenbosch: Infruitec
Combrink, J. C. and Von Mollendorff, L. J. (1996). Fruit quality. In Integrated Management of Post-Harvest Quality, ed. J. C. Combrink, pp. 2–7. Stellenbosch: Infruitec
, , and (1997). High density planted apple orchards: effects on yield, performance and fruit quality. Acta Horticulturae 451, 505–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1984). Hardy, productive apple rootstocks used in Poland. Compact Fruit Tree 17, 19–31Google Scholar
(1959). Red colour distribution in apple skin. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science 74, 72–81Google Scholar
and (1988). Nutritional status and root system of Anna apple under alkaline soil in a warm dry climate of Mexico. Acta Horticulturae 232, 177–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1977). Comparisons of M.9 clonal selections with respect to growth and cropping of three apple varieties. Acta Horticulturae 75, 163–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1986). Virus free and virus tested M.9 selections. Acta Horticulturae 160, 79–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferree, D. C. and Carlson, R. F. (1987). Apple rootstocks. In Rootstocks for Fruit Crops, ed. R. C. Rom and R. F. Carlson, pp. 107–43. New York: John Wiley and Sons
Findlay, J. S. and Combrink, J. C. (1996). Cold chain management. In Integrated Management of Post-Harvest Quality, ed. J. C. Combrink, pp. 79–90. Stellenbosch: Infruitec
(1997). The Pillnitz apple rootstock breeding methods and selection results. Acta Horticulturae 451, 89–97CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1996). Opportunities in production and marketing of integrated fruit production (IFP) certified apples in Poland. Journal of Tree Fruit Production I, 15–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fukuda, H. (1994). Apple. In Horticulture in Japan, ed. K. Konishi, S. Iwahori, H. Kitagawa and T. Yakuwa, pp. 23–7. Tokyo: Asakura Publishing Co. Ltd
Gotz, G. and Silbereisen, R. (1989). Obstsorten Atlas. Stuttgart: Ulmer
, and (1976). The influence of root temperature on apple trees. II. Clonal differences in susceptibility to damage caused by supraoptimal root temperatures. Journal of Horticultural Science 51, 195–202CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1986). The effect of rootstock and variety on the productive surface of apple trees. Acta Horticulturae 160, 83–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1997). Performance of dwarfing apple rootstocks in five trials in British Columbia, Canada. Fruit Varieties Journal 51, 183–91Google Scholar
Hansen, P. (1980). Crop load and nutrient translocation. In Mineral Nutrition of Fruit Trees, ed. D. Atkinson, J. E. Jackson, R. O. Sharples and W. M. Waller, pp. 200–12. London: ButterworthsCrossRef
Hauagge, R. and Cummins, J. N. (2000). Pome fruit genetic pool for production in warm climates. In Temperate Fruit Crops in Warm Climates, ed. A. Erez, pp. 267–303. Dordrecht: KluwerCrossRef
(1964). The microclimate of fruit trees. III. The effect of tree size on light penetration and leaf area in Red Delicious apple trees. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science 85, 33–41Google Scholar
Hong, Y. P., Choi, J. H. and Lee, S. K. (1997). Optimum CA conditions for four apple cultivars grown in Korea. In CA 1997 Proceedings, Vol. 2. Apples and Pears, ed. E. J. Mitcham, pp. 241–5
, and (1997). Apple rootstock trials at the Faculty of Horticulture UHF Budapest. Acta Horticulturae 451, 153–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutchinson, A. (1967). Inheritance of stature, stooling, rooting ability and other characteristics in progenies of Malling IX. Annual Report of the Horticultural Research Institute of Ontario 1966, 76–82
(1970). Aspects of light climate within apple orchards. Journal of Applied Ecology 7, 207–16CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1980). Light interception and utilisation by orchard systems. Horticultural Reviews 2, 208–67Google Scholar
Jackson, J. E. (1985). Future fruit orchard design: economics and biology. In Attributes of Trees as Crop Plants, ed. M. G. R. Cannell and J. E. Jackson, pp. 441–59. Monks Wood, UK: Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Natural Environment Research Council
Jackson J. E. (1990). Cropping and multiple cropping of apples in medium altitude tropical Zimbabwe. In Abstracts of the 23rd International Horticultural Congress. Florence: International Society for Horticultural Science, Abstract 4325
and (1995). The effect of hydrogen cyanamide (Dormex) on flowering and cropping of different apple cultivars under tropical conditions of sub-optimal winter chilling. Scientia Horticulturae 60, 293–304CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1977). Effects of shade on the growth and cropping of apple trees. II. Effects on components of yield. Journal of Horticultural Science 52, 253–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1971). The influence of shade and within-tree position on apple fruit size, colour and storage quality. Journal of Horticultural Science 46, 277–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janick, J., Cummins, J. N., Brown, S. K. and Hemmat, M. (1996). Apples. In Fruit Breeding, Vol. I. Tree and Tropical Fruits, ed. J. Janick and J. N. Moore, pp. 1–77. New York: John Wiley and Sons
Juniper, B. E., Robinson, J., Harris, S. A. and Watkins, R. (2001). Origin of the apple (Malus domestica, Borkh.). In Encyclopedia of Genetics, ed. E. C. R. Reeve, pp. 674–7. London: Fitzroy Dearborn
Kajiura, I. (1994). Nashi (Japanese pear). In Horticulture in Japan, ed. K. Konishi, S. Iwahori, H. Kitagowa and T. Yakuwa, pp. 40–7. Tokyo: Asakura Publishing Co. Ltd
Lacey, C. N. D. and Campbell, A. I. (1987). Selection, stability and propagation of mutant apples. In Improving Vegetatively Propagated Crops, ed. A. J. Abbott and R. K. Atkin, pp. 351–61. New York: Academic Press
and (1997). Principles of orchard systems management optimising supply, demand and partitioning in apple trees. Acta Horticulturae 451, 405–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1986). Apple tree management in vertical-axis: appraisal after ten years of experiments. Acta Horticulturae 160, 139–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lombard, P. B. and Westwood, M. N. (1987). Pear rootstocks. In Rootstocks for Fruit Crops, ed. R. C. Rom and R. F. Carlson, pp. 145–83. New York: John Wiley and Sons
and (1983). Predicting the optimum harvest dates for apples using temperature and full-bloom records. Journal of Horticultural Science 58, 37–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MAFF (1972). Apples. Bulletin 207. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. London: HMSO. p. 20
Mascall, L. (1575). The booke of Arte and Maner, howe to plant and graffe all sortes of Trees. London
Mattheis, J. and Fellman, J. (1997). Factors influencing ‘Gala’ apple volatile emission following dynamic atmosphere storage. In CA ‘97 Proceedings, Vol. 2. Apples and Pears, ed. E. J. Mitcham, p. 112
, , and (1969). Description of wild species of pome and stone fruits. 1. Pyrus. Indian Journal of Horticulture 26, 130–3Google Scholar
and (1956). Effects of controlled root temperatures on the growth of East Malling rootstocks in water culture. Journal of Horticultural Science 31, 55–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1986). Productivity and fruit quality of four apple cultivars on three different rootstocks and at different planting densities. Acta Horticulturae 160, 97–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1989). Apple tree management on dwarf rootstocks in Japan. Acta Horticulturae 243, 269–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar
O'Rourke, A. D. (1994). The World Apple Market. New York: Food Products Press
, , , and (1989). The International Planting Systems Trial. Acta Horticulturae 243, 231–41CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkinson, J. (1629). Paradisi in Sole. London
(1977). Field comparisons of ‘M.26’ and other dwarfing apple rootstocks on a diversity of sites. Journal of Horticultural Science 52, 59–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1980). Evidence of clonal variation and latent virus effects on the vigour of Cox's Orange Pippin apple trees on M.9 rootstocks. Journal of Horticultural Science 55, 439–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1972). Effects of interstock length and vigour on the field performance of Cox's Orange Pippin apples. Journal of Horticultural Science 47, 97–105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1997). The performance of ‘Jonagold’ and ‘Empire’ apple in an NC-140 rootstock and orchard systems trial in Michigan. Acta Horticulturae 451, 453–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1966). Fruit production in China. Proceedings of the 17th International Horticultural Congress 4, 427–56Google Scholar
(1988). Apple flower and fruit: morphology and anatomy. Horticultural Reviews 10, 273–308Google Scholar
(1958a). Apple rootstock studies: thirty-five years' results with Lane's Prince Albert on clonal rootstocks. Journal of Horticultural Science 33, 29–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1958b). Apple rootstock studies: thirty-five years' results with Cox's Orange Pippin on clonal rootstocks. Journal of Horticultural Science 33, 194–201CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1959). Thirty-five years' results with Worcester Pearmain on clonal rootstocks. Journal of Horticultural Science 34, 32–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1997). Low temperature injury and recovery of apple rootstocks. Acta Horticulturae 451, 179–86CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1990). Stool layering ability of thirty one apple rootstock cultivars. Fruit Varieties Journal 44, 165–9Google Scholar
and (1997). Cold hardiness evaluation of apple rootstocks. Acta Horticulturae 451, 187–93CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1996). Apple rootstock performance in British Columbia. Compact Fruit Tree 29, 12–18Google Scholar
Rehder, A. (1967). Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, 2nd edn. New York: Macmillan
Rejman, A. (1974). Apple varieties for the Polish climate. In Sad nowoczesny. The modern orchard. Special issue for the ⅪX International Horticultural Congress, ed. in chief K. Palinski, pp. 11–14. Warsaw: State Agriculture and Forestry Publishing House
Rivers, T. (1865). The Miniature Fruit Garden. London
Roach, F. A. (1985). Cultivated Fruits of Britain: their Origin and History. Oxford: Blackwell
(1997). The interaction of tree form and rootstock on light interception, yield and efficiency of ‘Empire’, ‘Delicious’, and ‘Jonagold’ apple trees trained to different systems. Acta Horticulturae 451, 427–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , and (1997). Commercial orchard evaluation of the new Cornell-Geneva apple rootstocks. Acta Horticulturae 451, 113–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1979). Water tolerance of apples on clonal rootstocks and peaches on seedling rootstocks. Compact Fruit Tree 12, 30–3Google Scholar
Ruellius, J. (1536). De Natura Stirpium libri tress. Paris
, , , and (1986). The relationship between spacing and rootstock effects in an intensive planting trial of two apple cultivars. Acta Horticulturae 160, 23–37CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1959). Resistance trials of some apple rootstock varieties to Phytophthora cactorum (L. & C.) Schroet. Journal of Horticultural Science 34, 51–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1973). Phytophthora collar rot of apple: influence of the rootstock on scion variety resistance. Annals of Applied Biology 74, 159–69CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shewfelt, R. L. (1993). Measuring quality and maturity. In Post-harvest Handling. A Systems Approach, ed. R. L. Shewfelt and S. E. Prussia, pp. 99–124. New York: Academic PressCrossRef
Shou-Chun, Q. (1998). Cited in: China pushes Fuji into overseas markets. Asiafruit January/February 1998, p. 22
(1981). Productivity, fruit quality and physiology aspects of fruiting at different planting densities and with different rootstocks with apples. Acta Horticulturae 114, 137–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1984). Improvement of aroma of Cox's Orange Pippin apples stored in low oxygen atmospheres. Journal of Horticultural Science 59, 515–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stepanov, S. N. (1974). Species and forms of fruit trees and bushes of the USSR and their utilization in plant breeding. Proceedings of the ⅪX International Horticultural Congress, Volume II. Warsaw, 1–12
Swales, J. E. (1971). Commercial Apple-growing in British Columbia. Department of Agriculture, Victoria, BC
(1974). Rootstock/scion relations in horticultural crop physiology. Scientia Horticulturae 2, 221–30CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tukey, H. B. (1964). Dwarfed Fruit Trees. New York: Macmillan
, , and (1989). Light distribution and fruit quality through multi-layered trellis apple canopies. Acta Horticulturae 243, 209–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tydeman, H. M. (1953). A description and classification of the Malling–Merton and Malling XXV apple rootstocks. Report of the East Malling Research Station for 1952, 55–63
and (1988). Use of the excised shoot assay to evaluate resistance to Phytophthora cactorum of apple rootstock cultivars. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 68, 851–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van der Merwe, J. A. (1996a). Maturity standards for deciduous fruit. In Integrated Management of Post-harvest Quality, ed. J. C. Combrink, pp. 25–32. Stellenbosch: Infruitec
van der Merwe, J. A. (1996b). Controlled and modified atmosphere storage. In Integrated Management of Post-harvest Quality, ed. J. C. Combrink, pp. 104–12. Stellenbosch: Infruitec
(1977). Growth and yield of Golden Delicious on M.9a and on three other M.9 rootstock sources. Acta Horticulturae 75, 157–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, (1986a). Effects of some new rootstocks on orchard behaviour of apple trees. Acta Horticulturae 160, 39–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, (1986b). Intraclonal variation in M.9 rootstock and its effects on nursery and orchard performance. Acta Horticulturae 160, 67–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar
and (1973). Light studies in a spacing trial with apple on a dwarfing and a semi-dwarfing rootstock. Scientia Horticulturae 1, 25–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wagenmakers, P. S. (1995). Light relations in orchard systems. Thesis, Wageningen
Way, R. D., Aldwinkle, H. S., Lamb, R. C., Rejman, A., Sansavini, S., Shen, T., Watkins, R., Westwood, M. M. and Yoshida, Y. (1990). Apples (Malus). In Genetic Resources of Temperate Fruit and Nut Crops, ed. J. N. Moore and J. R. Ballington. International Society for Horticultural Science, Acta Horticulturae290, 1–67
(1997). A review of fruit tree rootstock research and development. Acta Horticulturae 451, 53–73CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, , , and (1997). Rootstock breeding and orchard testing at Horticultural Research International East Malling. Acta Horticulturae 451, 83–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1981). Development and current achievement of high density plantings in Italy, Switzerland, Austria and Yugoslavia. Acta Horticulturae 114, 295–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
(1997). Useful differences in growth vigour between subclones of the apple rootstock M.9. Acta Horticulturae 451, 121–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
, and (1986). Comparison of single-row and multi-row planting systems with apple with regard to productivity, fruit size and colour and light conditions. Acta Horticulturae, 160, 243–58CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westwood, M. N. (1978). Temperate-zone Pomology. San Francisco: Freeman
(1982). Pear germplasm of the new national clonal repository: its evaluation and uses. Acta Horticulturae 124, 57–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Westwood, M. N. (1993). Temperate Zone Pomology, Physiology and Culture. Portland, OR: Timber Press
and (1970). The relationship between trunk cross-sectional area and weight of apple trees. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 95, 28–30Google Scholar
, , , and (1996). The bases of productivity in apple production systems: the role of light interception by different shoot types. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 121, 886–93Google Scholar
(1981). Performance of two apple cultivars on P. series dwarf rootstocks. Acta Horticulturae 114, 162–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zeven, A. C. and Zhukovsky, M. (1975). Dictionary of Cultivated Plants and their Centres of Diversity. Wageningen: Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation
- 2
- Cited by