Historical Background: General

After dividing between them the lands under Roman rule, escalating tensions between Octavian and Mark Antony erupted at the battle of Actium (31 B.C.E.), a naval engagement fought off the coast of Greece. Antony and Cleopatra were defeated and fled to Egypt, where they committed suicide. Octavian became sole ruler of Rome, and in 27 B.C.E. the Roman Senate awarded him the title Augustus, marking the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire. Despite being sickly, Augustus outlived a number of designated heirs, ruling until his death in 14 C.E. Augustus promoted the arts and literature, and initiated a massive building program that transformed Rome's appearance. Augustus's successors (the Julio-Claudian dynasty) were Tiberius (14–37), Gaius Caligula (37–41), Claudius (41–54), and Nero (54–68).

After Nero committed suicide, a civil war erupted, with a rapid succession of four emperors over the course of a year (69). Order was restored with the accession to the throne of the general Vespasian, who established the Flavian dynasty (consisting of Vespasian [69–79] and his sons Titus [79–81] and Domitian [81–96]).