Book contents
- The Cambridge Handbook of Motivation and Learning
- The Cambridge Handbook of Motivation and Learning
- Copyright page
- Epigraph
- Contents
- Figures
- Tables
- Contributors
- Foreword
- Acknowledgments
- Introduction Motivation and Its Relation to Learning
- Part I The Self and Its Impact
- Part II Rewards, Incentives, and Choice
- Part III Interest and Internal Motivation
- Part IV Curiosity and Boredom
- Part V Goals and Values
- Part VI Methods, Measures, and Perspective
- Index
- References
Part II - Rewards, Incentives, and Choice
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 15 February 2019
Book contents
- The Cambridge Handbook of Motivation and Learning
- The Cambridge Handbook of Motivation and Learning
- Copyright page
- Epigraph
- Contents
- Figures
- Tables
- Contributors
- Foreword
- Acknowledgments
- Introduction Motivation and Its Relation to Learning
- Part I The Self and Its Impact
- Part II Rewards, Incentives, and Choice
- Part III Interest and Internal Motivation
- Part IV Curiosity and Boredom
- Part V Goals and Values
- Part VI Methods, Measures, and Perspective
- Index
- References
Summary
While research on neuroscience posits that intrinsic and extrinsic incentives involve a single, common psychological process based on a reinforcement learning model (forming a “commonality view” on motivation), research in psychology has made a strong distinction between these two types of incentives (forming a “multifaceted view” on motivation), often even viewing them as competitive. Although they are not necessarily contradictory, I argue that these two meta-theoretical views have biased and prevented our comprehensive understanding of motivation and its relation to learning. I suggest ways that these different perspectives can inform each other, contributing to our broader understanding of human motivation and learning. These examples include the effects of reward on learning, the way people can transform one type of motivation to another, and a rewarding view for effort, challenge, and negative feedback. The arguments presented in this chapter underscore the vital importance of cross-disciplinary work on motivation and learning in future studies.
- Type
- Chapter
- Information
- The Cambridge Handbook of Motivation and Learning , pp. 139 - 262Publisher: Cambridge University PressPrint publication year: 2019
References
References
Adcock, R. A., Thangavel, A., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Knutson, B., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2006). Reward-motivated learning: Mesolimbic activation precedes memory formation. Neuron, 50(3), 507–17. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2006.03.036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aharon, I., Etcoff, N., Ariely, D., Chabris, C. F., O'Connor, E., & Breiter, H. C. (2001). Beautiful faces have variable reward value: fMRI and behavioral evidence. Neuron, 32(3), 537–51. doi: 10.1016/s0896-6273(01)00491-3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ames, C. (1992). Achievement goals and the classroom motivational climate. In Schunk, D. H. & Meece, J. L. (Eds.), Student perceptions in the classroom (pp. 327–48). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Aoki, R., Matsumoto, M., Yomogida, Y., Izuma, K., Murayama, K., Sugiura, A., ... Adolphs, R. (2014). Social equality in the number of choice options is represented in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 6413–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aronson, E. & Mills, J. (1959). The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59(2), 177–81. doi: 10.1037/h0047195.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychological Review, 64, 359–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Balleine, B. W., Daw, N. D., & O'Doherty, J. P. (2008). Multiple forms of value learning and the function of dopamine. In Glimcher, P. W., Camerer, C. F., Poldrack, R. A., & Fehr, E. (Eds.), Neuroeconomics: Decision-making and the brain (pp. 367–88). New York, NY: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F. & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berns, G. S., McClure, S. M., Pagnoni, G., & Montague, P. R. (2001). Predictability modulates human brain response to reward. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(8), 2793–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, K. C. (2001). Reward learning: Reinforcement, incentives, and expectations. The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory, 40, 223–78.Google Scholar
Berridge, K. C. (2004). Motivation concepts in behavioral neuroscience. Physiology & Behavior, 81, 179–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bhanji, J. P. & Delgado, M. R. (2014). Perceived control influences neural responses to setbacks and promotes persistence. Neuron, 83(6), 1369–75. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.08.012.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bindra, D. (1974). A motivational view of learning, performance, and behavior modification. Psychological Review, 81(3), 199–213. doi: 10.1037/h0036330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolles, R. C. (1972). Reinforcement, expectancy, and learning. Psychological Review, 79, 394–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Botvinick, M. M., Huffstetler, S., & McGuire, J. T. (2009). Effort discounting in human nucleus accumbens. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 9(1), 16–27. doi: 10.3758/CABN.9.1.16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braver, T. S., Krug, M. K., Chiew, K. S., Kool, W., Westbrook, J. A., Clement, N. J., ... Somerville, L. H. (2014). Mechanisms of motivation-cognition interaction: Challenges and opportunities. Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 14(2), 443–72.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burton, K. D., Lydon, J. E., D'Alessandro, D. U., & Koestner, R. (2006). The differential effects of intrinsic and identified motivation on well-being and performance: Prospective, experimental, and implicit approaches to self-determination theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 750–62. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.750.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Camerer, C. F. & Hogarth, R. M. (1999). The effects of financial incentives in experiments: A review and capital-labor-production framework. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 19, 7–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell-Meiklejohn, D. K., Bach, D. R., Roepstorff, A., Dolan, R. J., Frith, C. D. (2010). How the opinion of others affects our valuation of objects. Current Biology, 20(13), 1165–70. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2010.04.055.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cerasoli, C. P., Nicklin, J. M., & Ford, M. T. (2014). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 980–1008. doi: 10.1037/a0035661.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Daniel, R. & Pollmann, S. (2010). Comparing the neural basis of monetary reward and cognitive feedback during information-integration category learning. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(1), 47–55. doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.2205-09.2010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daniel, R. & Pollmann, S. (2012). Striatal activations signal prediction errors on confidence in the absence of external feedback. Neuroimage, 59(4), 3457–67. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.058.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davey, C. G., Allen, N. B., Harrison, B. J., Dwyer, D. B., & Yucel, M. (2010). Being liked activates primary reward and midline self-related brain regions. Human Brain Mapping, 31(4), 660–8. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20895.Google ScholarPubMed
Daw, N. D. & Doya, K. (2006). The computational neurobiology of learning and reward. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 16, 199–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daw, N. D., Niv, Y., & Dayan, P. (2005). Uncertainty-based competition between prefrontal and dorsolateral striatal systems for behavioral control. Nature Neuroscience, 8(12), 1704–11. www.nature.com/neuro/journal/v8/n12/suppinfo/nn1560_S1.html.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dayan, P. & Niv, Y. (2008). Reinforcement learning and the brain: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 18(2), 185–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deci, E. L. (1971). Effects of externally mediated rewards on intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 105–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 627–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delgado, M. R., Miller, M. M., Inati, S., & Phelps, E. A. (2005). An fMRI study of reward-related probability learning. Neuroimage, 24(3), 862–73. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.10.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dickinson, A. & Balleine, B. (2002). The role of learning in the operation of motivational systems. In Pashler, H. & Gallistel, R. (Eds.), Stevens’ handbook of experimental psychology: learning, motivation and emotion (Vol. 3, pp. 497–534). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.Google Scholar
Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. New York, NY: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Elliot, A. J. (2005). A conceptual history of the achievement goal construct. In Elliot, A. J. & Dweck, C. S. (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 52–72): New York, NY: Guilford Publications.Google Scholar
Elliot, A. J. (2008). Handbook of approach and avoidance motivation. New York, NY: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Elliot, A. J. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 461–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fastrich, G. M., Kerr, T., Castel, A. D., & Murayama, K. (2018). The role of interest in memory for trivia questions: An investigation with a large-scale database. Motivation Science, 4(3), 227–250. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/mot0000087.CrossRef
Flowerday, T. & Shell, D. F. (2015). Disentangling the effects of interest and choice on learning, engagement, and attitude. Learning and Individual Differences, 40, 134–40. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.05.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frey, B. S. & Jegen, R. (2001). Motivation crowding theory. Journal of Economic Surveys, 15, 589–611.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gruber, M. J., Gelman, B. D., & Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron, 84(2), 486–96. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2014.08.060.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haber, S. N. & Knutson, B. (2010). The reward circuit: Linking primate anatomy and human imaging. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35(1), 4–26. doi: 10.1038/npp.2009.129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Han, S., Huettel, S. A., Raposo, A., Adcock, R. A., & Dobbins, I. G. (2010). Functional significance of striatal responses during episodic decisions: Recovery or goal attainment? Journal of Neuroscience, 30(13), 4767–75. doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.3077-09.2010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harackiewicz, J. M., Manderlink, G., & Sansone, C. (1984). Rewarding pinball wizardry: Effects of evaluation and cue value on intrinsic interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47(2), 287–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hidi, S. (2016). Revisiting the role of rewards in motivation and learning: Implications of neuroscientific research. Educational Psychology Review, 28, 61–93. doi: 10.1007/s10648-015-9307-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hidi, S. & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest development. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 111–27. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep4102_4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory. Oxford: Appleton-Century.Google Scholar
Izuma, K. (2012). The social neuroscience of reputation. Neuroscience Research, 72(4), 283–8. doi: 10.1016/j.neures.2012.01.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Izuma, K., Saito, D. N., & Sadato, N. (2008). Processing of social and monetary rewards in the human striatum. Neuron, 58(2), 284–94. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2008.03.020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jepma, M., Verdonschot, R. G., van Steenbergen, H., Rombouts, S., & Nieuwenhuis, S. (2012). Neural mechanisms underlying the induction and relief of perceptual curiosity. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 6. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2012.00005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, R. M., Somerville, L. H., Li, J., Ruberry, E. J., Libby, V., Glover, G., ... Casey, B. J. (2011). Behavioral and neural properties of social reinforcement learning. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31(37), 13039–45. doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.2972-11.2011.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kable, J. W. & Glimcher, P. W. (2009). The neurobiology of decision: Consensus and controversy. Neuron, 63(6), 733–45. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.09.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kakade, S. & Dayan, P. (2002). Dopamine: Generalization and bonuses. Neural Networks, 15(4–6), 549–59. doi: 10.1016/s0893-6080(02)00048-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kang, M. J., Hsu, M., Krajbich, I. M., Loewenstein, G., McClure, S. M., Wang, J. T-y., & Camerer, C. F. (2009). The wick in the candle of learning: Epistemic curiosity activates reward circuitry and enhances memory. Psychological Science, 20(8), 963–73. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02402.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klasen, M., Weber, R., Kircher, T. T. J., Mathiak, K. A., & Mathiak, K. (2012). Neural contributions to flow experience during video game playing. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(4), 485–95. doi: 10.1093/scan/nsr021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, E. D., Bhatt, R. S., & Zentall, T. R. (2005). Contrast and the justification of effort. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(2), 335–9. doi: 10.3758/bf03196381.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knutson, B. & Greer, S. M. (2008). Anticipatory affect: Neural correlates and consequences for choice. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences, 363(1511), 3771–86. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koepp, M. J., Gunn, R. N., Lawrence, A. D., Cunningham, V. J., Dagher, A., Jones, T., ... Grasby, P. M. (1998). Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature, 393(6682), 266–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kool, W., McGuire, J. T., Rosen, Z. B., & Botvinick, M. M. (2010). Decision-making and the avoidance of cognitive demand. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139(4), 665–82. doi: 10.1037/a0020198.Google ScholarPubMed
Kringelbach, M. L. & Berridge, K. C. (2016). Neuroscience of reward, motivation, and drive. In Kim, S., Reeve, J., & Bong, M. (Eds.), Recent developments in neuroscience research on human motivation (Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Vol. 19), pp. 23–35. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leotti, L. A. & Delgado, M. R. (2011). The inherent reward of choice. Psychological Science, 10, 1310–8. doi: 10.1177/0956797611417005.Google Scholar
Leotti, L. A., Iyengar, S. S., & Ochsner, K. N. (2010). Born to choose: The origins and value of the need for control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(10), 457–63. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2010.08.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining childrens’ intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: Test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1), 129–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levy, D. J. & Glimcher, P. W. (2012). The root of all value: A neural common currency for choice. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 22(6), 1027–38. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2012.06.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lin, A., Adolphs, R., & Rangel, A. (2011). Social and monetary reward learning engage overlapping neural substrates. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7(3), 274–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Lipstein, R. L. & Renninger, K. A. (2007). Interest for writing: How teachers can make a difference. The English Journal, 96, 79–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Locke, E. A. & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Loewenstein, G. (1999). Because it is there: The challenge of mountaineering … for utility theory. Kyklos, 52, 315–43. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6435.1999.tb00221.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacTurk, R. H. & Morgan, G. A. (Eds.) (1995). Mastery motivation: Origins, conceptualizations, and applications. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Marvin, C. B. & Shohamy, D. (2016). Curiosity and reward: Valence predicts choice and information prediction errors enhance learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145(3), 266–72. doi: 10.1037/xge0000140.Google ScholarPubMed
Mather, M. & Schoeke, A. (2011). Positive outcomes enhance incidental learning for both younger and older adults. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 5. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2011.00129.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCabe, C., Harwood, J., Brouwer, S., Harmer, C. J., & Cowen, P. J. (2013). Effects of pramipexole on the processing of rewarding and aversive taste stimuli. Psychopharmacology, 228(2), 283–90. doi: 10.1007/s00213-013-3033-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClelland, D. C., Atkinson, J. W., Clark, R. A., & Lowell, E. L. (1976). The achievement motive: Oxford: Irvington.Google Scholar
McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96, 690–702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDannald, M. A., Takahashi, Y. K., Lopatina, N., Pietras, B. W., Jones, J. L. & Schoenbaum, G. (2012). Model-based learning and the contribution of the orbitofrontal cortex to the model-free world. European Journal of Neuroscience, 35(7), 991–6. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07982.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGillivray, S., Murayama, K., & Castel, A. D. (2015). Thirst for knowledge: The effects of curiosity and interest on memory in younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 30(4), 835–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Metcalfe, J. & Kornell, N. (2005). A region of proximal learning model of study time allocation. Journal of Memory and Language, 52(4), 463–77. doi: 10.1016/j.jml.2004.12.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montague, P. R. & Berns, G. S. (2002). Neural economics and the biological substrates of valuation. Neuron, 36, 265–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murayama, K. & Elliot, A. J. (2011). Achievement motivation and memory: Achievement goals differentially influence immediate and delayed remember–know recognition memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(10), 1339–48. doi: 10.1177/0146167211410575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murayama, K., Elliot, A. J., & Friedman, R. (2012). Achievement goals and approach-avoidance motivation. In Ryan, R. M. (Ed.), Oxford handbook of motivation (pp. 191–207). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Murayama, K., FitzGibbon, L., & Sakaki, M. (2018). Process account of curiosity and interest: A reward learning model of knowledge acquisition. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/hbcz5.CrossRef
Murayama, K., Izuma, K., Aoki, R., & Matsumoto, K. (2016). “Your choice” motivates you in the brain: The emergence of autonomy neuroscience. In Kim, S., Reeve, J., & Bong, M. (Eds.), Recent developments in neuroscience research on human motivation (Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Vol. 19), pp. 95–125. Bingley, UK: Emerald Publishing Group Limited.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murayama, K. & Kitagami, S. (2014). Consolidation power of extrinsic rewards: Reward cues enhance long-term memory for irrelevant past events. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 15–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murayama, K., Kitagami, S., Tanaka, A., & Raw, J. A. (2016). People's naiveté about how extrinsic rewards influence intrinsic motivation. Motivation Science, 2(3), 138–42. doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/mot0000040.CrossRef
Murayama, K., Matsumoto, M., Izuma, K., & Matsumoto, K. (2010). Neural basis of the undermining effect of monetary reward on intrinsic motivation. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(49), 20911–16.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murayama, K., Matsumoto, M., Izuma, K., Sugiura, A., Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L., & Matsumoto, K. (2015). How self-determined choice facilitates performance: A key role of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 25(5), 1241–51. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bht317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murayama, K., Pekrun, R., Lichtenfeld, S., & vom Hofe, R. (2013). Predicting long-term growth in students' mathematics achievement: The unique contributions of motivation and cognitive strategies. Child Development, 84(4), 1475–90. doi: 10.1111/cdev.12036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Murty, V. P. & Adcock, R. A. (2014). Enriched encoding: Reward motivation organizes cortical networks for hippocampal detection of unexpected events. Cerebral Cortex, 24(8), 2160–8. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bht063.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murty, V. P., DuBrow, S., & Davachi, L. (2015). The simple act of choosing influences declarative memory. The Journal of Neuroscience, 35(16), 6255–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Niv, Y., Joel, D., & Dayan, P. (2006). A normative perspective on motivation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10, 375–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Niv, Y. & Schoenbaum, G. (2008). Dialogues on prediction errors. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(7), 265–72. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2008.03.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Doherty, J., Kringelbach, M. L., Rolls, E. T., Hornak, J., & Andrews, C. (2001). Abstract reward and punishment representations in the human orbitofrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 95–102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Doherty, J. P. (2004). Reward representations and reward-related learning in the human brain: Insights from neuroimaging. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14, 769–76.Google ScholarPubMed
Oudeyer, P. Y., Gottlieb, J., & Lopes, M. (2016). Intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and learning: Theory and applications in educational technologies. In Bettina, S. & Stefan, K. (Eds.), Progress in brain research (Vol. 229, pp. 257–84). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Oudeyer, P.-Y. & Kaplan, F. (2009). What is intrinsic motivation? A typology of computational approaches. Frontiers in Neurorobotics, 1. doi: 10.3389/neuro.12.006.2007.Google Scholar
Pearce, M. T., Zaidel, D. W., Vartanian, O., Skov, M., Leder, H., Chatterjee, A., & Nadal, M. (2016). Neuroaesthetics. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11(2), 265–79. doi: 10.1177/1745691615621274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pintrich, P. R. & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Merrill-Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
Rangel, A. & Hare, T. (2010). Neural computations associated with goal-directed choice. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 20(2), 262–70. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2010.03.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reeve, J. & Lee, W. (2012). Neuroscience and human motivation. In Ryan, R. M. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 365–80). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Reeve, J., Nix, G., & Hamm, D. (2003). Testing models of the experience of selfdetermination in intrinsic motivation and the conundrum of choice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 375–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renninger, K. A. & Hidi, S. (2016). The power of interest for motivation and engagement. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General & Applied, 80(1), 1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rushworth, M. F. S., Mars, R. B., & Summerfield, C. (2009). General mechanisms for making decisions? Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 19(1), 75–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryan, R. M., Mims, V., & Koestner, R. (1983). Relation of reward contingency and interpersonal context to intrinsic motivation: A review and test using cognitive evaluation theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(4), 736–50. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.45.4.736.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Salimpoor, V. N., Benovoy, M., Larcher, K., Dagher, A., & Zatorre, R. J. (2011). Anatomically distinct dopamine release during anticipation and experience of peak emotion to music. Nature Neuroscience, 14(2), 257–355. doi: 10.1038/nn.2726.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science, 275(5306), 1593–9. doi: 10.1126/science.275.5306.1593.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sedikides, C. & Strube, M. J. (1997). Self-evaluation: To thine own self be good, to thine own self be sure, to thine own self be better. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 29, 209–69.Google Scholar
Seymour, B. & McClure, S. M. (2008). Anchors, scales and the relative coding of value in the brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 18(2), 173–8. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2008.07.010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shohamy, D. (2011). Learning and motivation in the human striatum. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 21(3), 408–14. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2011.05.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shohamy, D. & Adcock, R. A. (2010). Dopamine and adaptive memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(10), 464–72. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2010.08.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skinner, E. A. (1996). A guide to constructs of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 549–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spaniol, J., Schain, C., & Bowen, H. J. (2014). Reward-enhanced memory in younger and older adults. Journals of Gerontology Series B-Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69(5), 730–40. doi: 10.1093/geronb/gbt044.Google ScholarPubMed
Sutton, R. S. & Barto, A. G. (1998). Reinforcement learning. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Tanaka, A. & Murayama, K. (2014). Within-person analyses of situational interest and boredom: Interactions between task-specific perceptions and achievement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106, 1122–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tang, S. H. & Hall, V. C. (1995). The overjustification effect – a metaanalysis. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 9(5), 365–404. doi: 10.1002/acp.2350090502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tricomi, E., Delgado, M. R., McCandliss, B. D., McClelland, J. L., & Fiez, J. A. (2006). Performance feedback drives caudate activation in a phonological learning task. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18(6), 1029–43. doi: 10.1162/jocn.2006.18.6.1029.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valentin, V. V. & O'Doherty, J. P. (2009). Overlapping prediction errors in dorsal striatum during instrumental learning with juice and money reward in the human brain. Journal of Neurophysiology, 102(6), 3384–91. doi: 10.1152/jn.91195.2008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Soenens, B., & Matos, L. (2005). Examining the motivational impact of intrinsic versus extrinsic goal framing and autonomy-supportive versus internally controlling communication style on early adolescents' academic achievement. Child Development, 76(2), 483–501.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westbrook, A., Kester, D., & Braver, T. S. (2013). What is the subjective cost of cognitive effort? Load, trait, and aging effects revealed by economic preference. PLoS One, 8(7), e68210. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wiersma, U. J. (1992). The effects of extrinsic rewards in intrinsic motivation – a metaanalysis. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 65, 101–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wittmann, B. C., Schott, B. H., Guderian, S., Frey, J. U., Heinze, H. J., & Duzel, E. (2005). Reward-related fMRI activation of dopaminergic midbrain is associated with enhanced hippocampus-dependent long-term memory formation. Neuron, 45(3), 459–67. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2005.01.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woolley, K. & Fishbach, A. (2016). For the fun of it: Harnessing immediate rewards to increase persistence in long-term goals. Journal of Consumer Research, 42(6), 952–66. doi: 10.1093/jcr/ucv098.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
References
Anselme, P. (2013). Dopamine, motivation, and the evolutionary significance of gambling-like behaviour. Behavioural Brain Research, 256 C, 1–4. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.07.039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anselme, P. (2015). Incentive salience attribution under reward uncertainty: A Pavlovian model. Behavioural Processes, 111, 6–18. doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2014.10.016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anselme, P. (2016). Motivational control of sign-tracking behaviour: A theoretical framework. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 65, 1–20. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anselme, P., Robinson, M. J. F., & Berridge, K. C. (2013). Reward uncertainty enhances incentive salience attribution as sign-tracking. Behavioural Brain Research, 238, 53–61. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.10.006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Archer, J. (1988). The behavioural biology of aggression. Cambridge University Press Archive.Google Scholar
Avena, N. M. & Hoebel, B. G. (2003a). A diet promoting sugar dependency causes behavioral cross-sensitization to a low dose of amphetamine. Neuroscience, 122(1), 17–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Avena, N. M. & Hoebel, B. G. (2003b). Amphetamine-sensitized rats show sugar-induced hyperactivity (cross-sensitization) and sugar hyperphagia. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 74(3), 635–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baillargeon, R. (1987). Object permanence in 3½- and 4½-month-old infants. Developmental Psychology, 23(5), 655–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bartlett, E., Hallin, A., Chapman, B., & Angrist, B. (1997). Selective sensitization to the psychosis-inducing effects of cocaine: a possible marker for addiction relapse vulnerability? Neuropsychopharmacology, 16(1), 77–82. doi: 10.1016/S0893-133X(96)00164-9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belayachi, S., Majerus, S., Gendolla, G., Salmon, E., Peters, F., & Van der Linden, M. (2015). Are the carrot and the stick the two sides of same coin? A neural examination of approach/avoidance motivation during cognitive performance. Behavioural Brain Research, 293, 217–26. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.07.042.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berridge, K. C. (2004). Motivation concepts in behavioral neuroscience. Physiology & Behavior, 81(2), 179–209. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.02.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, K. C. (2007). The debate over dopamine's role in reward: the case for incentive salience. Psychopharmacology, 191(3), 391–431. doi: 10.1007/s00213-006-0578-x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, K. C. (2012). From prediction error to incentive salience: mesolimbic computation of reward motivation. European Journal of Neuroscience, 35(7), 1124–43. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.07990.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, K. C. & Robinson, T. E. (1998). What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience? Brain Research Reviews, 28(3), 309–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bodor, J. N., Rice, J. C., Farley, T. A., Swalm, C. M., & Rose, D. (2010). The association between obesity and urban food environments. Journal of Urban Health, 87(5), 771–81. doi: 10.1007/s11524-010-9460-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boileau, I., Payer, D., Chugani, B., Lobo, D. S., Houle, S., Wilson, A. A., ... Zack, M. (2013). In vivo evidence for greater amphetamine-induced dopamine release in pathological gambling: A positron emission tomography study with [11C]-(+)-PHNO. Molecular Psychiatry, 19(12), 1305–13. doi: 10.1038/mp.2013.163.Google Scholar
Bolles, R. C. (1972). Reinforcement, expectancy, and learning. Psychological Review, 79(5), 394–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burns, M. & Domjan, M. (1996). Sign tracking versus goal tracking in the sexual conditioning of male Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica). Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes, 22(3), 297–306. doi: 10.1037/0097-7403.22.3.297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cannon, C. M. & Bseikri, M. R. (2004). Is dopamine required for natural reward? Physiology & Behavior, 81(5), 741–8. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.04.020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chase, H. W. & Clark, L. (2010). Gambling severity predicts midbrain response to near miss outcomes. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(18), 6180–7. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5758-09.2010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, L., Lawrence, A. J., Astley-Jones, F., & Gray, N. (2009). Gambling near-misses enhance motivation to gamble and recruit win-related brain circuitry. Neuron, 61(3), 481–90. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2008.12.031.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, L. & Pearce, J. M. (1985). Predictive accuracy and the effects of partial reinforcement on serial autoshaping. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 11, 548–64.Google Scholar
Collins, L., Young, D. B., Davies, K., & Pearce, J. M. (1983). The influence of partial reinforcement on serial autoshaping with pigeons. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology B, Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 35(4), 275–90. doi: 10.1080/14640748308400893.Google ScholarPubMed
Cousins, M. S., Sokolowski, J. D., & Salamone, J. D. (1993). Different effects of nucleus accumbens and ventrolateral striatal dopamine depletions on instrumental response selection in the rat. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 46(4), 943–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crespi, L. P. (1942). Quantitative variation of incentive and performance in the white rat. The American Journal of Psychology, 55(4), 467–517. doi: 10.2307/1417120?ref=search-gateway:18b91fd28dc7c135471d0d97bddee0b1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cresswell, W. (2003). Testing the mass-dependent predation hypothesis: In European blackbirds poor foragers have higher overwinter body reserves. Animal Behaviour, 65, 1035–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D'Souza, M. S. & Duvauchelle, C. L. (2008). Certain or uncertain cocaine expectations influence accumbens dopamine responses to self-administered cocaine and non-rewarded operant behavior. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 18(9), 628–38. doi: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2008.04.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Lafuente, V. & Romo, R. (2011). Dopamine neurons code subjective sensory experience and uncertainty of perceptual decisions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(49), 19767–71. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1117636108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dodd, M. L., Klos, K. J., Bower, J. H., Geda, Y. E., Josephs, K. A., & Ahlskog, J. E., (2005). Pathological gambling caused by drugs used to treat Parkinson disease. Archives of Neurology, 62(9), 1377–81. doi: 10.1001/archneur.62.9.noc50009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domjan, M., O'Vary, D., & Greene, P. (1988). Conditioning of appetitive and consummatory sexual behavior in male Japanese quail. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 50(3), 505–19. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1988.50-505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dreher, J.-C., Kohn, P., & Berman, K. F. (2006). Neural coding of distinct statistical properties of reward information in humans. Cerebral Cortex, 16(4), 561–73. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhj004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dweck, C. S. & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ekman, J. B. & Hake, M. K. (1990). Monitoring starvation risk: adjustments of body reserves in greenfinches (Carduelis chloris L.) during periods of unpredictable foraging success. Behavioral Ecology, 1, 62–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everitt, B. J. & Robbins, T. W. (2015). Drug addiction: updating actions to habits to compulsions ten years on. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 23–50. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiorillo, C. D., Tobler, P. N., & Schultz, W. (2003). Discrete coding of reward probability and uncertainty by dopamine neurons. Science, 299(5614), 1898–902. doi: 10.1126/science.1077349.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fischman, M. W. & Foltin, R. W. (1992). Self-administration of cocaine by humans: a laboratory perspective. Ciba Foundation Symposium, 166, 165–80.Google ScholarPubMed
Gibbon, J., Farrell, L., Locurto, C. M., Duncan, H. J., & Terrace, H. S. (1980). Partial reinforcement in autoshaping with pigeons. Animal Learning & Behavior, 8(1), 45–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glimcher, P. W. (2011). Understanding dopamine and reinforcement learning: the dopamine reward prediction error hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108 Suppl 3, 15647–54. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1014269108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gosler, A. G. (1996). Environmental and social determinants of winter fat storage in the great tit (Parus major). Journal of Animal Ecology, 65(1), 1–17. doi: 10.2307/5695?ref=search-gateway:1604b76cc4918de863817a1952f0beff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gottlieb, D. A. (2004). Acquisition with partial and continuous reinforcement in pigeon autoshaping. Learning & Behavior, 32(3), 321–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hart, A. S., Clark, J. J., & Phillips, P. E. M. (2015). Dynamic shaping of dopamine signals during probabilistic Pavlovian conditioning. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 117, 84–92. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2014.07.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hidi, S. & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest development. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 111–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinde, R. A. (1960). Energy models of motivation. Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology, 14, 199–213.Google ScholarPubMed
Holst, von E. & Saint Paul, von U. (1963). On the functional organisation of drives. Animal Behaviour, 11(1), 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior: An introduction to behavior theory. (Elliott, R. M., Ed.). Appleton-Century.
Ikemoto, S. (2010). Brain reward circuitry beyond the mesolimbic dopamine system: A neurobiological theory. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(2), 129–50. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.02.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ikemoto, S. & Panksepp, J. (1996). Dissociations between appetitive and consummatory responses by pharmacological manipulations of reward-relevant brain regions. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110(2), 331–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jenkins, H. M. & Moore, B. R. (1973). The form of the auto-shaped response with food or water reinforcers. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 20(2), 163–81. doi: 10.1901/jeab.1973.20-163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kassinove, J. I. & Schare, M. L. (2001). Effects of the “near miss” and the “big win” on persistence at slot machine gambling. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 15(2), 155–8. doi: 10.1037//0893-164X.15.2.155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koepp, M. J., Gunn, R. N., Lawrence, A. D., Cunningham, V. J., Dagher, A., Jones, T., ... Grasby, P. M. (1998). Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a video game. Nature, 393(6682), 266–8. doi: 10.1038/30498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laumann, E. O., Gagnon, J. H., Michael, R. T., & Michaels, S. (1994). The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Linnet, J., Peterson, E., Doudet, D. J., Gjedde, A., & Møller, A. (2010). Dopamine release in ventral striatum of pathological gamblers losing money. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 122(4), 326–33. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2010.01591.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Litt, A., Khan, U., & Shiv, B. (2010). Lusting while loathing: parallel counterdriving of wanting and liking. Psychological Science, 21(1), 118–25. doi: 10.1177/0956797609355633.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClure, S. M., Daw, N. D., & Montague, P. R. (2003). A computational substrate for incentive salience. Trends in Neurosciences, 26(8), 423–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McFarland, D. (1969). Separation of satiating and rewarding consequences of drinking. Physiology & Behavior, 4(6), 987–9. doi: 10.1016/0031-9384(69)90054-7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, N. E. & Kessen, M. L. (1952). Reward effects of food via stomach fistula compared with those of food via mouth. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 45(6), 555–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myers, K. P. & Hall, W. G. (1998). Evidence that oral and nutrient reinforcers differentially condition appetitive and consummatory responses to flavors. Physiology & Behavior, 64(4), 493–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91(3), 328–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nisbett, R. E. & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panksepp, J. (1998). Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Peciña, S., Cagniard, B., Berridge, K. C., Aldridge, J. W., & Zhuang, X. (2003). Hyperdopaminergic mutant mice have higher “wanting” but not “liking” for sweet rewards. The Journal of Neuroscience, 23(28), 9395–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pravosudov, V. V. & Grubb, T. C. (1997). Management of fat reserves and food caches in tufted titmice (Parus bicolor) in relation to unpredictable food supply. Behavioral Ecology, 8, 332–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preuschoff, K., Bossaerts, P., & Quartz, S. R. (2006). Neural differentiation of expected reward and risk in human subcortical structures. Neuron, 51(3), 381–90. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2006.06.024.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Redish, A. D., Jensen, S., & Johnson, A. (2008). A unified framework for addiction: Vulnerabilities in the decision process. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 31(4), 415–37. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X0800472X.Google ScholarPubMed
Renninger, K. A. (2000). Individual interest and its implications for understanding intrinsic motivation. In Sansone, C. & Harackiewicz, J. M. (Eds.), Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation: The search for optimal motivation and performance (pp. 375–407). New York, NY: Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/B978-012619070-0/50035-0.Google Scholar
Renninger, K. A., Ewen, L., & Lasher, A. K. (2002). Individual interest as context in expository text and mathematical word problems. Learning and Instruction, 12, 467–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renninger, K. A. & Hidi, S. (2016). Interest, attention, and curiosity. In Renninger, K. A. & Hidi, S. (Eds.), The power of interest for motivation and engagement (pp. 32–51). New York, NY and London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Rescorla, R. A. & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In Black, A. H. & Prokasy, W. F. (Eds.), Classical conditioning II: Current theory and research (pp. 64–99). New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.Google Scholar
Robinson, M. J. F. & Berridge, K. C. (2013). Instant transformation of learned repulsion into motivational “Wanting”. Current Biology, 23(4), 282–9. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2013.01.016.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, M. J. F. & Berridge, K. C. (2015). Wanting vs needing. In Wright, J. D. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (2nd ed., Vol. 25, pp. 351–6). Oxford: Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.26091-1.Google Scholar
Robinson, M. J. F., Anselme, P., Fischer, A. M., & Berridge, K. C. (2014a). Initial uncertainty in Pavlovian reward prediction persistently elevates incentive salience and extends sign-tracking to normally unattractive cues. Behavioural Brain Research, 266, 119–30. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.03.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, M. J. F., Anselme, P., Suchomel, K., & Berridge, K. C. (2015a). Amphetamine-induced sensitization and reward uncertainty similarly enhance incentive salience for conditioned cues. Behavioral Neuroscience, 129(4), 502–11. doi: 10.1037/bne0000064.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, M. J. F., Burghardt, P. R., Patterson, C. M., Nobile, C. W., Akil, H., Watson, S. J., ... Ferrario, C. R. (2015b). Individual differences in cue-induced motivation and striatal systems in rats susceptible to diet-induced obesity. Neuropsychopharmacology, 40(9), 2113–23. doi: 10.1038/npp.2015.71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, M. J. F., Fischer, A. M., Ahuja, A., Lesser, E. N., & Maniates, H. (2015c). Roles of “wanting” and “liking” in motivating behavior: Gambling, food, and drug addictions. In Balsam, P. D. & Simpson, E. H. (Eds.), (Vol. 27, pp. 105–36). Current topics in behavioral neurosciences. doi: 10.1007/7854_2015_387.CrossRef
Robinson, M. J. F., Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (2014b). Incentive salience in addiction and over-consumption. In Preston, S., Kringelbach, M. L., Knutson, B., & Whybrow, P. C. (Eds.), The interdisciplinary science of consumption (pp. 185–97). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Robinson, T. E. & Berridge, K. C. (1993). The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Research Brain Research Reviews, 18(3), 247–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, T. E. & Berridge, K. C. (2001). Incentive-sensitization and addiction. Addiction, 96(1), 103–14. doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.9611038.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robinson, T. E. & Berridge, K. C. (2008). The incentive sensitization theory of addiction: some current issues. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences, 363(1507), 3137–46. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2008.0093.Google ScholarPubMed
Rosse, R. B., Fay-McCarthy, M., Collins, J. P., Risher-Flowers, D., Alim, T. N., & Deutsch, S. I. (1993). Transient compulsive foraging behavior associated with crack cocaine use. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 150(1), 155–6.Google ScholarPubMed
Salamone, J. D. & Correa, M. (2002). Motivational views of reinforcement: Implications for understanding the behavioral functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine. Behavioural Brain Research, 137, 3–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Salamone, J. D., Cousins, M. S., & Bucher, S. (1994). Anhedonia or anergia? Effects of haloperidol and nucleus accumbens dopamine depletion on instrumental response selection in a T-maze cost/benefit procedure. Behavioural Brain Research, 65(2), 221–9. doi: 10.1016/0166-4328(94)90108-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, W. (1998). Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology, 80(1), 1–27.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, W. (2010). Subjective neuronal coding of reward: temporal value discounting and risk. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 31(12), 2124–35. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07282.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science, 275(5306), 1593–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singer, B. F., Scott-Railton, J., & Vezina, P. (2012). Unpredictable saccharin reinforcement enhances locomotor responding to amphetamine. Behavioural Brain Research, 226(1), 340–4. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.09.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spence, K. W. (1956). Behavior theory and conditioning. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. doi: 10.1037/10029-000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tan, C. O. & Bullock, D. (2008). A local circuit model of learned striatal and dopamine cell responses under probabilistic schedules of reward. Journal of Neuroscience, 28(40), 10062–74. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0259-08.2008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tindell, A. J., Smith, K. S., Berridge, K. C., & Aldridge, J. W. (2009). Dynamic computation of incentive salience: “wanting” what was never “liked”. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29(39), 12220–8. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2499-09.2009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tolman, E. C. (1949). The nature and functioning of wants. Psychological Review, 56(6), 357–69.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Turner, L. H., Solomon, R. L., Stellar, E., & Wampler, S. N. (1975). Humoral factors controlling food intake in dogs. Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis, 35(5-6), 491–8.Google ScholarPubMed
Valenstein, E. S., Cox, V. C., & Kakolewski, J. W. (1970). Reexamination of the role of the hypothalamus in motivation. Psychological Review, 77(1), 16–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voon, V., Hassan, K., Zurowski, M., Duff-Canning, S., de Souza, M., Fox, S., ... Miyasaki, J. (2006). Prospective prevalence of pathologic gambling and medication association in Parkinson disease. Neurology, 66(11), 1750–2. doi: 10.1212/01.wnl.0000218206.20920.4d.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wise, R. A. (1982). Neuroleptics and operant behavior: The anhedonia hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 5(1), 39–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolf, S. G. & Wolff, H. G. (1943). Human gastric function: An experimental study of a man and his stomach. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Woodward, A., Phillips, A., & Spelke, E. S. (1993). Infants’ expectations about the motions of inanimate vs. animate objects. In Proceedings of the Cognitive Science Society, Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Young, P. T. (1961). Motivation and emotion: A survey of the determinants of human and animal activity. Oxford: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zack, M., Featherstone, R. E., Mathewson, S., & Fletcher, P. J. (2014). Chronic exposure to a gambling-like schedule of reward predictive stimuli can promote sensitization to amphetamine in rats. In Singer, B. F., Anselme, P., Robinson, M. J., & Vezina, P. (Eds.), Neuronal and Psychological Underpinnings of Pathological Gambling. Lausanne: Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 36. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00036.Google Scholar
References
Abuhamdeh, S. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2012). The importance of challenge for the enjoyment of intrinsically motivated, goal-directed activities. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(3), 317–30. doi: 10.1177/0146167211427147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adcock, R. A., Thangavel, A., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Knutson, B., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2006). Reward-motivated learning: Mesolimbic activation precedes memory formation. Neuron, 50(3), 507–17. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2006.03.036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, B. A., Laurent, P. A., & Yantis, S. (2011). Value-driven attentional capture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(25), 10367–71. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1104047108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baldassarre, G. & Mirolli, M. (2013). Intrinsically motivated learning systems: An overview. In Intrinsically motivated learning in natural and artificial systems (pp. 1–14). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-32375-1_1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldi, P. & Itti, L. (2010). Of bits and wows: A Bayesian theory of surprise with applications to attention. Neural Networks, 23(5), 649–66. doi: 10.1016/j.neunet.2009.12.007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baranes, A. & Oudeyer, P. Y. (2013). Active learning of inverse models with intrinsically motivated goal exploration in robots. Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 61(1), 49–73. doi: 10.1016/j.robot.2012.05.00.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baranes, A., Oudeyer, P. Y., & Gottlieb, J. (2015). Eye movements reveal epistemic curiosity in human observers. Vision Research, 117, 81–90. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2015.10.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barto, A. G. (2013). Intrinsic motivation and reinforcement learning. In Intrinsically motivated learning in natural and artificial systems (pp. 17–47). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-32375-1_2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barto, A., Mirolli, M., & Baldassarre, G. (2013). Novelty or surprise? Frontiers in Psychology, 4. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00907.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, J. M., Ma, W. J., Kiani, R., Hanks, T., Churchland, A. K., Roitman, J., ... Pouget, A. (2008). Probabilistic population codes for Bayesian decision making. Neuron, 60(6), 1142–52. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2008.09.021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berridge, K. C. & Kringelbach, M. L. (2008). Affective neuroscience of pleasure: Reward in humans and animals. Psychopharmacology, 199(3), 457–80. doi: 10.1007/s00213-008-1099-6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialek, W., Nemenman, I., & Tishby, N. (2001). Predictability, complexity, and learning. Neural Computation, 13(11), 2409–63. doi: 10.1162/089976601753195969.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanchard, T. C., Hayden, B. Y., & Bromberg-Martin, E. S. (2015). Orbitofrontal cortex uses distinct codes for different choice attributes in decisions motivated by curiosity. Neuron, 85(3), 602–14. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.12.050.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Botvinick, M. M., Braver, T. S., Barch, D. M., Carter, C. S., & Cohen, J. D. (2001). Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychological Review, 108(3), 624. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.624.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Britten, K. H., Shadlen, M. N., Newsome, W. T., & Movshon, J. A. (1992). The analysis of visual motion: A comparison of neuronal and psychophysical performance. Journal of Neuroscience, 12(12), 4745–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brockmole, J. R. & Henderson, J. M. (2005a). Object appearance, disappearance, and attention prioritization in real-world scenes. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(6), 1061–7. doi: 10.3758/BF03206444.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brockmole, J. R. & Henderson, J. M. (2005b). Prioritization of new objects in real-world scenes: Evidence from eye movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology–Human Perception and Performance, 31(5), 857–68. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.31.5.857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bromberg-Martin, E. S. & Hikosaka, O. (2009). Midbrain dopamine neurons signal preference for advance information about upcoming rewards. Neuron, 63(1), 119–26. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.06.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buschman, T. J. & Miller, E. K. (2007). Top-down versus bottom-up control of attention in the prefrontal and posterior parietal cortices. Science, 315(5820), 1860–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castro, D. C. & Berridge, K. C. (2014). Advances in the neurobiological bases for food “liking” versus “wanting”. Physiology & Behavior, 136, 22–30. doi: 10.1126/science.1138071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiba, A. A., Bucci, D. J., Holland, P. C., & Gallagher, M. (1995). Basal forebrain cholinergic lesions disrupt increments but not decrements in conditioned stimulus processing. Journal of Neuroscience, 15(11), 7315–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York, NY: Harper Perennial.Google Scholar
Daddaoua, N., Lopes, M., & Gottlieb, J. (2016). Intrinsically motivated oculomotor exploration guided by uncertainty reduction and conditioned reinforcement in non-human primates. Scientific Reports, 6. doi: 10.1038/srep20202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dalley, J. W., McGaughy, J., O'Connell, M. T., Cardinal, R. N., Levita, L., & Robbins, T. W. (2001). Distinct changes in cortical acetylcholine and noradrenaline efflux during contingent and noncontingent performance of a visual attentional task. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(13), 4908–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dayan, P. & Daw, N. D. (2008). Decision theory, reinforcement learning, and the brain. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 8(4), 429–53. doi: 10.3758/cabn.8.4.429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dayan, P., Niv, Y., Seymour, B., & Daw, N. D. (2006). The misbehavior of value and the discipline of the will. Neural Networks, 19(8), 1153–60. doi: 10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Della Libera, C. & Chelazzi, L. (2009). Learning to attend and to ignore is a matter of gains and losses. Psychological Science, 20(6), 778–84. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02360.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dosenbach, N. U., Fair, D. A., Cohen, A. L., Schlaggar, B. L., & Petersen, S. E. (2008). A dual-networks architecture of top-down control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(3), 99–105. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Everitt, B. J. & Robbins, T. W. (1997). Central cholinergic systems and cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 48(1), 649–84. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.48.1.649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Falkenstein, M., Koshlykova, N. A., Kiroj, V. N., Hoormann, J., & Hohnsbein, J. (1995). Late ERP components in visual and auditory Go/Nogo tasks. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology/Evoked Potentials Section, 96(1), 36–43. doi: 10.1016/0013-4694(94)00182-k.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Flagel, S. B., Clark, J. J., Robinson, T. E., Mayo, L., Czuj, A., Willuhn, I., ... Akil, H., (2011). A selective role for dopamine in reward learning. Nature, 469(7328), 53. doi: 10.1038/nature09588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foley, N. C., Jangraw, D. C., Peck, C., & Gottlieb, J. (2014). Novelty enhances visual salience independently of reward in the parietal lobe. Journal of Neuroscience, 34(23), 7947–57. doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.4171-13.2014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foley, N. C., Kelly, S. P., Mhatre, H., Lopes, M., & Gottlieb, J. (2017). Parietal neurons encode expected gains in instrumental information. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(16), E3315-E3323.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forestier, S. & Oudeyer, P. Y. (2016). Curiosity-driven development of tool use precursors: A computational model. In 38th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (CogSci 2016) (pp. 1859–64).Google Scholar
Friedman-Hill, S. R., Robertson, L. C., Desimone, R., & Ungerleider, L. G. (2003). Posterior parietal cortex and the filtering of distractors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100(7), 4263–8. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0730772100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Friston, K., Schwartenbeck, P., FitzGerald, T., Moutoussis, M., Behrens, T., & Dolan, R. (2013). The anatomy of choice: active inference and agency. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gehring, W. J., Goss, B., Coles, M. G., Meyer, D. E., & Donchin, E. (1993). A neural system for error detection and compensation. Psychological Science, 4(6), 385–90. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00586.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gehring, W. J. & Knight, R. T. (2002). Lateral prefrontal damage affects processing selection but not attention switching. Cognitive Brain Research, 13(2), 267–79. doi: 10.1016/s0926-6410(01)00132-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Germain, C. M. & Hess, T. M. (2007). Motivational influences on controlled processing: Moderating distractibility in older adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 14(5), 462–86. doi: 10.1080/13825580600611302.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, J. I. & Shadlen, M. N. (2007). The neural basis of decision making. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 30, 535–74. doi: 10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, M. E., Bisley, J. W., Powell, K. D., & Gottlieb, J. (2006). Saccades, salience and attention: the role of the lateral intraparietal area in visual behavior. Progress in Brain Research, 155, 157–75. doi: 10.1016/S0079-6123(06)55010-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottlieb, J. (2012). Attention, learning, and the value of information. Neuron, 76(2), 281–95. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2012.09.034.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottlieb, J. (2018). Understanding active sampling strategies: empirical approaches and implications for attention and decision research. Cortex, 102, 150–60. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2017.08.019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottlieb, J. & Balan, P. (2010). Attention as a decision in information space. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(6), 240–8. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2010.03.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottlieb, J. & Goldberg, M. E. (1999). Activity of neurons in the lateral intraparietal area of the monkey during an antisaccade task. Nature Neuroscience, 2(10), 906–13. doi: 10.1038/13209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottlieb, J., Hayhoe, M., Hikosaka, O., & Rangel, A. (2014). Attention, reward, and information seeking. Journal of Neuroscience, 34(46), 15497–504. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3270-14.2014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gottlieb, J., Lopes, M., & Oudeyer, P. Y. (2016). Motivated cognition: Neural and computational mechanisms of curiosity, attention, and intrinsic motivation. In Kim, S., Reeve, J. & Bong, M. (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Recent developments in neuroscience research on human motivation (pp. 149–72). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing.Google Scholar
Gottlieb, J., Oudeyer, P. Y., Lopes, M., & Baranes, A. (2013). Information-seeking, curiosity, and attention: computational and neural mechanisms. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(11), 585–93. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.09.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossnickle, E. M. (2015). The expression and enactment of interest and curiosity in a multiple source use task (Doctoral dissertation). University of Maryland, College Park.Google Scholar
Gruber, M. J., Gelman, B. D., & Ranganath, C. (2014). States of curiosity modulate hippocampus-dependent learning via the dopaminergic circuit. Neuron, 84(2), 486–96. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.08.060.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hickey, C., Chelazzi, L., & Theeuwes, J. (2010). Reward changes salience in human vision via the anterior cingulate. Journal of Neuroscience. 30, 11096–103. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1026-10.2010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hidi, S. (1990). Interest and its contribution as a mental resource for learning. Review of Educational Research, 60(4), 549–71. doi: 10.3102/00346543060004549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hidi, S. (2016). Revisiting the role of rewards in motivation and learning: Implications of neuroscientific research. Educational Psychology Review, 28(1), 61–93. doi: 10.1007/s10648-015-9307-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horvitz, J. C. (2000). Mesolimbocortical and nigrostriatal dopamine responses to salient non-reward events. Neuroscience, 96(4), 651–6. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4522(00)00019-1.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Isaacowitz, D. M., Wadlinger, H. A., Goren, D., & Wilson, H. R. (2006). Selective preference in visual fixation away from negative images in old age? An eye-tracking study. Psychology and Aging, 21(1), 40. doi: 10.1037/0882-7974.21.1.40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Itti, L. & Baldi, P. (2009). Bayesian surprise attracts human attention. Vision Research, 49(10), 1295–306. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2008.09.007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, L., Sullivan, B., Hayhoe, M., & Ballard, D. (2014). Predicting human visuomotor behavior in a driving task. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1636), 20130044. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0044.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kable, J. W. & Glimcher, P. W. (2009). The neurobiology of decision: consensus and controversy. Neuron, 63(6), 733–45. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2009.09.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaelbling, L. P., Littman, M. L., & Cassandra, A. R. (1998). Planning and acting in partially observable stochastic domains. Artificial Intelligence, 101(1), 99–134. doi: 10.1016/s0004-3702(98)00023-x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kakade, S. & Dayan, P. (2002). Dopamine: Generalization and bonuses. Neural Networks, 15(4), 549–59. doi: 10.1016/s0893-6080(02)00048-5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kang, M. J., Hsu, M., Krajbich, I. M., Loewenstein, G., McClure, S. M., Wang, J. T. Y., & Camerer, C. F. (2009). The wick in the candle of learning: Epistemic curiosity activates reward circuitry and enhances memory. Psychological Science, 20(8), 963–73. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.1308286.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, F. & Oudeyer, P.-Y. (2007). In search of the neural circuits of intrinsic motivation. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 1, 17CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, F. & Oudeyer, P.-Y. (2011). From hardware and software to kernels and envelopes: A concept shift for robotics, developmental psychology, and brain sciences. In Krichmar, J. L. & Wagatsuma, H. (Eds.), Neuromorphic and brain-based robots (pp. 217–50). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/cbo9780511994838.011.Google Scholar
Keller, J. & Bless, H. (2008). Flow and regulatory compatibility: An experimental approach to the flow model of intrinsic motivation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(2), 196–209. doi: 10.1177/0146167207310026.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laurent, P. A. (2008). The emergence of saliency and novelty responses from reinforcement learning principles. Neural Networks, 21(10), 1493–9. doi: 10.1016/j.neunet.2008.09.004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Litman, J. A. (2005). Curiosity and the pleasures of learning: Wanting and liking new information. Cognition & Emotion, 19(6), 793–814. doi: 10.1080/026999 30541000101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Litman, J. A. (2007). Curiosity as a feeling of interest and feeling of deprivation: The I/D model of curiosity. Issues in the Psychology of Motivation, 149–56. doi: 10.1037/t27877-000.Google Scholar
Litman, J. A. (2008). Interest and deprivation factors of epistemic curiosity. Personality and Individual Differences, 44(7), 1585–95. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2008.01.014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, G. (1994). The psychology of curiosity: A review and reinterpretation. Psychological Bulletin, 116(1), 75. doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.116.1.75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopes, M. & Oudeyer, P. Y. (2012). The strategic student approach for life-long exploration and learning. In 2012 IEEE International Conference on Development and Learning and Epigenetic Robotics (ICDL) (pp. 1–8). IEEE. doi: 10.1109/devlrn.2012.6400807.Google Scholar
Mather, M. & Carstensen, L. L. (2003). Aging and attentional biases for emotional faces. Psychological Science, 14(5), 409–15. doi: 10.1111/1467-9280.01455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maunsell, J. H. (2004). Neuronal representations of cognitive state: reward or attention? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(6), 261–5. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2004.04.003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mazurek, M. E., Roitman, J. D., Ditterich, J., & Shadlen, M. N. (2003). A role for neural integrators in perceptual decision making. Cerebral Cortex, 13(11), 1257–69. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhg097.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moulin-Frier, C. & Oudeyer, P. Y. (2012). Curiosity-driven phonetic learning. In 2012 IEEE International Conference on Development and Learning and Epigenetic Robotics (ICDL) (pp. 1–8). IEEE. doi: 10.1109/devlrn.2012.6400583.Google Scholar
Mullaney, K. M., Carpenter, S. K., Grotenhuis, C., & Burianek, S. (2014). Waiting for feedback helps if you want to know the answer: The role of curiosity in the delay-of-feedback benefit. Memory & Cognition, 42(8), 1273–84. doi: 10.3758/s13421-014-0441-y.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Najemnik, J. & Geisler, W. S. (2005). Optimal eye movement strategies in visual search. Nature, 434(7031), 387. doi: 10.1016/j.ajo.2005.04.009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Navalpakkam, V. & Itti, L. (2005). Modeling the influence of task on attention. Vision Research, 45(2), 205–31. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2004.07.042.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ngo, H., Luciw, M., Forster, A., & Schmidhuber, J. (2012). Learning skills from play: artificial curiosity on a katana robot arm. In 2012 International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (IJCNN) (pp. 1–8). IEEE. doi: 10.1109/ijcnn.2012.6252824.Google Scholar
Nguyen, S.M. & Oudeyer, P. Y. (2013). Socially guided intrinsic motivation for robot learning of motor skills. Autonomous Robots, 36(3), 273–94. doi: 10.1007/s10514-013-9339-y.Google Scholar
Norman, D. A. & Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action. In Consciousness and self-regulation (pp. 1–18). NYC, NY: Springer US. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4757-0629-1_1.Google Scholar
Oudeyer, P. Y., Baranes, A., & Kaplan, F. (2013). Intrinsically motivated learning of real-world sensorimotor skills with developmental constraints. In M. Mirolli & G. Baldassarre (Eds.), Intrinsically motivated learning in natural and artificial systems (pp. 303–65). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-32375-1_13.
Oudeyer, P. Y., Gottlieb, J., & Lopes, M. (2016). Intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and learning: Theory and applications in educational technologies. Progress in Brain Research, 229, 257–84. doi: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2016.05.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oudeyer, P. Y. & Kaplan, F. (2006). Discovering communication. Connection Science, 18(2), 189–206. doi: 10.1080/09540090600768567.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oudeyer, P. Y., Kaplan, F., & Hafner, V. V. (2007). Intrinsic motivation systems for autonomous mental development. IEEE Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, 11(2), 265–86. doi: 10.1109/TEVC.2006.890271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pape, L., Oddo, C. M., Controzzi, M., Cipriani, C., Förster, A., Carrozza, M. C. & Schmidhuber, J. (2012). Learning tactile skills through curious exploration. Frontiers in Neurorobotics, 6. doi: 10.3389/fnbot.2012.00006.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Payzan-LeNestour, E. & Bossaerts, P. (2011). Risk, unexpected uncertainty, and estimation uncertainty: Bayesian learning in unstable settings. PLoS Computational Biology, 7(1), e1001048. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1001048.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Peck, C. J., Jangraw, D. C., Suzuki, M., Efem, R., & Gottlieb, J. (2009). Reward modulates attention independently of action value in posterior parietal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 29(36), 11182–91. doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.1929-09.2009.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pessoa, L., Kastner, S., & Ungerleider, L. G. (2003). Neuroimaging studies of attention: From modulation of sensory processing to top-down control. Journal of Neuroscience, 23(10), 3990–8. doi: 0270-6474/03/233990-09.00/0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Platt, M. L. & Glimcher, P. W. (1999). Neural correlates of decision variables in parietal cortex. Nature, 400(6741), 233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Posner, M. I. (1994). Attention: The mechanisms of consciousness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 91(16), 7398–403. doi: 10.1073/pnas.91. 16.7398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, M. I. & Dehaene, S. (1994). Attentional networks. Trends in Neurosciences, 17(2), 75–9. doi: 10.1016/0166-2236(94)90078-7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Renninger, K. A. & Hidi, S. (2011). Revisiting the conceptualization, measurement, and generation of interest. Educational Psychologist, 46(3), 168–84. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2011.587723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Renninger, K. A. & Hidi, S. & Hidi, S. (2016). The power of interest for motivation and learning. New York, NY; Routledge.Google Scholar
Renninger, L. W., Verghese, P., & Coughlan, J. (2007). Where to look next? Eye movements reduce local uncertainty. Journal of Vision, 7(3), 6. doi: 10.1167/7.3.6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Risko, E. F., Anderson, N. C., Lanthier, S., & Kingstone, A. (2012). Curious eyes: Individual differences in personality predict eye movement behavior in scene-viewing. Cognition, 122(1), 86–90. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryan, R. M. & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. doi: 10.1006/ceps.1999.1020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarter, M., Gehring, W. J., & Kozak, R. (2006). More attention must be paid: The neurobiology of attentional effort. Brain Research Reviews, 51(2), 145–60. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2005.11.002.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Satterthwaite, T. D., Ruparel, K., Loughead, J., Elliot, M. A., Gerraty, R. T., Calkins, M. E., ... Wolf, D. H. (2012). Being right is its own reward: load and performance related ventral striatum activation to correct responses during a working memory task in youth. Neuroimage, 61(3), 723–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schmidhuber, J. (2006). Developmental robotics, optimal artificial curiosity, creativity, music, and the fine arts. Connection Science, 18(2), 173–87. doi: 10.1080/09540090600768658.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmidhuber, J. (2013). Maximizing fun by creating data with easily reducible subjective complexity. In Mirolli, M. & Baldassarre, G. (Eds.), Intrinsically motivated learning in natural and artificial systems (pp. 95–128). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-32375-1_5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singh, S., James, M. R., & Rudary, M. R. (2004). Predictive state representations: A new theory for modeling dynamical systems. In Proceedings of the 20th Conference on Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence (pp. 512–19). AUAI Press.Google Scholar
Singh, S., Lewis, R. L., Barto, A. G., & Sorg, J. (2010). Intrinsically motivated reinforcement learning: An evolutionary perspective. IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development, 2(2), 70–82. doi: 10.1109/TAMD.2010.2051031.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Srivastava, R. K., Steunebrink, B. R., & Schmidhuber, J. (2013). First experiments with PowerPlay. Neural Networks, 41, 130–36. doi: 10.1016/j.neunet.2013.01.022.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steels, L. (2004). The autotelic principle. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, (3139), 231–42. doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-27833-7_17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stuss, D. T., Shallice, T., Alexander, M. P., & Picton, T. W. (1995). A multidisciplinary approach to anterior attentional functions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 769(1), 191–212. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1995.tb38140.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sugrue, L. P., Corrado, G. S., & Newsome, W. T. (2005). Choosing the greater of two goods: neural currencies for valuation and decision making. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 6(5), 363. doi: 10.1038/nrn1666.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sullivan, B. T., Johnson, L., Rothkopf, C. A., Ballard, D., & Hayhoe, M. (2012). The role of uncertainty and reward on eye movements in a virtual driving task. Journal of Vision, 12(13), 19. doi: 10.1167/12.13.19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tatler, B. W., Hayhoe, M. M., Land, M. F., & Ballard, D. H. (2011). Eye guidance in natural vision: Reinterpreting salience. Journal of Vision, 11(5), 5. doi: 10.1167/11.5.5.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tsotsos, J. K. (2011). A computational perspective on visual attention. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. doi: 10.7551/mitpress/9780262015417.001.0001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ullsperger, M. & von Cramon, D. Y. (2004). Neuroimaging of performance monitoring: Error detection and beyond. Cortex, 40(4), 593–604. doi: 10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70155-2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Duijvenvoorde, A. C., Peters, S., Braams, B. R., & Crone, E. A. (2016). What motivates adolescents? Neural responses to rewards and their influence on adolescents’ risk taking, learning, and cognitive control. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 70, 135–47. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.06.037.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vossel, S., Mathys, C., Daunizeau, J., Bauer, M., Driver, J., & Friston, K. J., & Stephan, K. E. (2013). Spatial attention, precision, and Bayesian inference: A study of saccadic response speed. Cerebral Cortex, 24(6), 1436–450. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhs418.Google ScholarPubMed
Vossel, S., Mathys, C., Stephan, K. E., & Friston, K. J. (2015). Cortical coupling reflects Bayesian belief updating in the deployment of spatial attention. Journal of Neuroscience, 35(33), 11532–42. doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.1382-15.2015.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vossel, S., Thiel, C. M., & Fink, G. R. (2006). Cue validity modulates the neural correlates of covert endogenous orienting of attention in parietal and frontal cortex. Neuroimage, 32(3), 1257–64. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.05.019.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, X. J. (2008). Decision making in recurrent neuronal circuits. Neuron, 60(2), 215–34. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2008.09.034.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wise, R. A. (2004). Dopamine, learning and motivation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(6), 483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wittmann, B. C., Bunzeck, N., Dolan, R. J., & Düzel, E. (2007). Anticipation of novelty recruits reward system and hippocampus while promoting recollection. Neuroimage, 38(1), 194–202. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.06.038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wittmann, B. C., Daw, N. D., Seymour, B., & Dolan, R. J. (2008). Striatal activity underlies novelty-based choice in humans. Neuron, 58(6), 967–73. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2008.04.027.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, H., Chen, X., & Zelinsky, G. J. (2009). A new look at novelty effects: Guiding search away from old distractors. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 71(3), 554–64. doi: 10.3758/app.71.3.554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yang, S. C. H., Lengyel, M., & Wolpert, D. M. (2016). Active sensing in the categorization of visual patterns. eLife, 5, e12215. doi: 10.7554/elife.25660.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yang, T. & Shadlen, M. N. (2007). Probabilistic reasoning by neurons. Nature, 447(7148), 1075. doi: 10.1038/nature05852.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yu, A.J. & Dayan, P. (2005). Uncertainty, neuromodulation, and attention. Neuron, 46(4), 681–92. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2005.04.026.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
References
Abramovich, S., Schunn, C., & Higashi, R. M. (2013). Are badges useful in education? It depends upon the type of badge and expertise of learner. Educational Technology Research and Development, 61(2), 217–32. doi: 10.1007/s11423-013-9289-2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Afterschool Alliance (2015). Digital badges in afterschool: Connecting learning in a connected world. [Report]. Retrieved from www.afterschoolalliance.org/documents/DigitalBadgesInAfterschool.pdf.
American Council on Education (2016). Quality dimensions for connected credentials. Washington, DC. Retrieved from http://connectingcredentials.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/Quality-Dimensions-for-Connected-Credentials.pdf.
Anderson, J. R. (1982). Acquisition of cognitive skill. Psychological Review, 89(4), 369–406. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.89.4.369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, T. & McGreal, R. (2012). Disruptive pedagogies and technologies in universities. Educational Technology & Society, 15(4), 380–89.Google Scholar
Ash, K. (2012, June 13). “Digital badges” would represent student skill acquisition; Initiatives seek to give students permanent online records for developing specific skills. Education Week Digital Directions 5(3), pp. 24–25, 28, 30. Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/dd/articles/2012/06/13/03badges.h05.htmlGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. (2000). Exercise of human agency through collective efficacy. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(3), 75–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barab, S., Zuiker, S., Warren, S., Hickey, D., Ingram-Goble, A., Kwon, E. J., ... Herring, S. C. (2007). Situationally embodied curriculum: Relating formalisms and contexts. Science Education, 91(5), 750–82. doi: 10.1002/sce.20217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackburn, R. D., Porto, S. C., & Thompson, J. J. (2016). Competency-based education and the relationship to digital badges. In Muilenburg, L. Y. & Berge, Z. L. (Eds.), Digital badges in education: Trends, issues, and cases (pp. 30–8). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bowen, K. (2013). “Carpetbadging” – why metadata is so important when it comes to #openbadges [Twitter post]. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/kyledbowen/status/336577520449245185.
Brown, J. S. (2012). Cultivating the entrepreneurial learner in the 21st century. [YouTube video]. Keynote address at the 2012 Digital Media and Learning Conference. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SoRV0BEwvEU.
Brown, J. S. & Adler, R. P. (2008). Open education, the long tail, and learning 2.0. EDUCAUSE Review, 43(1), 16–20.Google Scholar
Buckingham, J. (2014). Open digital badges for the uninitiated. The Electronic Journal for English as a Second Language, 18(1), 1–11.Google Scholar
Cameron, J., Banko, K. M., & Pierce, W. D. (2001). Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues. The Behavior Analyst, 24(1), 1–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carey, K. (2012). Show me your badge. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/04/education/edlife/show-me-your-badge.html.Google Scholar
Case, R. (1996). Changing views of knowledge and their impact on educational research and practice. In Olson, D. R. & Torrance, N. (Eds.), Handbook of education and human development (pp. 75–99). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Casilli, C. & Hickey, D. (2016). Transcending conventional credentialing and assessment paradigms with information-rich digital badges. The Information Society, 32(2), 117–29. doi: 10.1080/01972243.2016.1130500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, G. & Kanfer, R. (2006). Toward a systems theory of motivated behavior in work teams. Research in Organizational Behavior, 27, 223–67. doi: 10.1016/s0191-3085(06)27006-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cordova, D. I. & Lepper, M. R. (1996). Intrinsic motivation and the process of learning: Beneficial effects of contextualization, personalization, and choice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(4), 715–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Davis, K. & Singh, S. (2015). Digital badges in afterschool learning: Documenting the perspectives and experiences of students and educators. Computers & Education, 88, 72–83. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu/2015.04.011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627–68. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). The general causality orientations scale: Self-determination in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 19(2), 109–34. doi: 10.1016/0092-6566(85).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan, A. (2011). Digital Badges for Learning. Opening remarks and DML 2012 competition event transcript. Retrieved from www.ed.gov/news/speeches/digital-badges-learning.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, A. (2011, November 19). For job hunters, digital merit badges. The New York Times, p. BU3. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/20/business/digital-badges-may-highlight-job-seekers-skills.htmlGoogle Scholar
Engle, R. A. (2006). Framing interactions to foster generative learning: A situative explanation of transfer in a community of learners classroom. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 15(4), 451–498. http://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls1504CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engle, R. A. & Conant, F. R. (2002). Guiding principles for fostering productive disciplinary engagement: Explaining an emergent argument in a community of learners classroom. Cognition and Instruction, 20(4), 399–483. doi: 10.1207/S1532690XCI2004_1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Everhart, D., Derryberry, A., Knight, E., & Lee, S. (2016). The role of endorsement in Open Badges ecosystems. In Ifenthaler, D., Belin-Mularski, N., & Mah, D., (Eds.), Foundation of digital badges and micro-credentials (pp. 221–35). New York, NY: Springer.Google Scholar
Everhart, D., Sandeen, C., Seymour, D., & Yoshino, K. (2014). Clarifying competency-based education terms: A lexicon. Blackboard.com. Retrieved from http://bbbb.blackboard.com/Competency-based-education-definitions.
Ferlazzo, L. (2012). The dangers of “gamification” in education. Edublogs. Retrieved from http://larryferlazzo.edublogs.org/2012/02/26/the-dangers-of-gamification-in-education/.Google Scholar
Filsecker, M. & Hickey, D. T. (2014). A multilevel analysis of the effects of external rewards on elementary students' motivation, engagement and learning in an educational game. Computers & Education, 75, 136–48. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2014.02.008.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fong, J., Janzow, P., & Peck, K. (2016). Demographic shifts in educational demand and the rise of alternative credentials. University Professional and Continuing Education Association. Retrieved from http://upcea.edu/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Demographic-Shifts-in-Educational-Demand-and-the-Rise-of-Alternative-Credentials.pdf.
Gardner, H. (1992). Assessment in context: The alternative to standardized testing. In Gifford, B. R. & O'Connor, M. C. (Eds.), Changing assessments: Alternative views of aptitude, achievement, and instruction (pp. 77–120). Boston, MA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gates Foundation. (2011). Supporting students: Investing in innovation and quality. College Ready Monograph Series. Seattle, WA. Retrieved from https://docs.gatesfoundation.org/documents/supporting-students.pdf.
Gerstein, J. (2013). I Don't Get Digital Badges. User generated education [blog]. Retrieved from https://usergeneratededucation.wordpress.com/2013/03/16/i-dont-get-digital-badges.
Grant, S. (2014). What counts As learning. Digital Median and Learning Research Hub. Retrieved from https://dmlhub.net/publications/what-counts-learning.
Greene, D., Sternberg, B., & Lepper, M. R. (1976). Overjustification in a token economy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34(6), 1219–34. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.34.6.1219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greeno, J. G. (1998). The situativity of knowing, learning, and research. American Psychologist, 53(1), 5–26. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.53.1.5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halverson, R. (2004). Accessing, documenting, and communicating practical wisdom: The phronesis of school leadership practice. American Journal of Education, 111(1), 90–121. doi: 0195-6744/2004/11101-0004$05.00CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickey, D. T. (2003). Engaged participation versus marginal nonparticipation: A stridently sociocultural approach to achievement motivation. The Elementary School Journal, 103(4), 401–29. doi: 0013-5984/2003/10304-0006$05CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hickey, D. T. & Otto, N. (2017). “Endorsement 2.0” is about to transform eCredentials. EDUCAUSE Review [online]. Retrieved from https://er.educause.edu/articles/2017/2/endorsement-2-taking-open-badges-and-ecredentials-to-the-next-level.
Hickey, D. T. & Willis, J. E. (2015). Research designs for studying individual and collaborative learning with digital badges. In Proceedings of the Second Annual Open Badges in Education Workshop, Poughkeepsie, NY (pp. 36–40). Retrieved from http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1358/paper5.pdf.Google Scholar
Hickey, D. T. & Willis, J. E. (2017). Where badges appear to work better. Final Report of the Design Principles Documentation Project. Indiana University. Center for Research on Learning and Technology. Retrieved from http://bit.ly/2DPDfinalreport.
Hickey, D. T. & Zuiker, S. J. (2012). Multilevel assessment for discourse, understanding, and achievement. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 21(4), 522–82. doi: 10.1080/10508406.2011.652320.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hidi, S. (2016). Revisiting the role of rewards in motivation and learning: Implications of neuroscientific research. Educational Psychology Review, 28(1), 61–93. doi: 10.1007/s10648-015-9307-5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hidi, S. & Anderson, V. (2014). Situational interest and its impact on reading and expository writing. In Renninger, A., Hidi, S., & Krapp, A., (Eds.), The Role of interest in learning and development (pp. 215–38). New York, NY: Psychology Press. (Reprinted from 1992).Google Scholar
Hidi, S. & Renninger, K. A. (2006). The four-phase model of interest development. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 111–27. doi: 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ito, M. (2012). Reflections on DML 2012 and a vision of educational change. [blog post at DML Central]. Retrieved from http://dmlcentral.net/blog/mimi-ito/reflections-dml2012-and-visions-educational-change.
Järvelä, S., Volet, S., & Järvenoja, H. (2010). Research on motivation in collaborative learning: Moving beyond the cognitive–situative divide and combining individual and social processes. Educational Psychologist, 45(1), 15–27. doi: 10.1080/00461520903433539.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenkins, H. (2012). How to earn your skeptic “badge.” Confessions of an Aca-Fan. The official blog of Henry Jenkins. Retrieved from http://henryjenkins.org/2012/03/how_to_earn_your_skeptic_badge.html.Google Scholar
Jenkins, H., Purushotma, R., Weigel, M., Clinton, K., & Robison, A. J. (2009). Confronting the challenges of participatory culture: Media education for the 21st century. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohn, A. (1999). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A's, praise, and other bribes. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.Google Scholar
Kohn, A. (2014). Keynote presentation at the 12th Annual e-Portfolio, Open Badges, and Identity Conference, London, England. Retrieved from www.youtube.com/watch?v=p_98XcxJqkw.
Kolowich, S. (2014). Can digital “badges” and “nanodegrees” protect job seekers from a first-round knockout? Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from www.chronicle.com/article/Can-Digital-Badges-and/150257.Google Scholar
Kruchten, P. (2004). The rational unified process: An introduction. New York, NY: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Lamal, P. A. (1990). Behavioral analysis of societies and cultural practices. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1), 129–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leuba, M. (2015). Competency-based education: Technology challenges and opportunities. EDUCAUSE Review [online]. Retrieved from http://er.educause.edu/articles/2015/10/competency-based-education-technology-challenges-and-opportunities.Google Scholar
Mallon, M. (2013). Gaming and gamification. Public Services Quarterly, 9(3), 210–21. doi: 10.1080/15228959.2013.815502.Google Scholar
Malone, T. W. & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. In Snow, R. E. & Farr, M. J. (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction, Vol. 3, conative and affective process analysis (pp. 223–53). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Metzger, E. C., Lubin, L., Patten, R. T., & Whyte, J. (2016). Applied gamification: Creating reward systems for organizational professional development. In D. Ifenthaler, N. Belin-Mularski, & D. Mah (Eds.) Foundation of digital badges and micro-credentials (pp. 457–66). NYC, NY: Springer International Publishing. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-15425-1.Google Scholar
Moss, P. A. (2003). Reconceptualizing validity for classroom assessment. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 22(4), 13–25. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-3992.2003.tb00140.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Research Council. (2001). Knowing what students know: The science and design of educational assessment. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Nicholson, S. (2012). A user-centered theoretical framework for meaningful gamification. Games, Learning & Society, 8(1), 223–30.Google Scholar
Nolen, S. B., Horn, I. S., & Ward, C. J. (2015). Situating motivation. Educational Psychologist, 50(3), 234–47. doi: 10.1080/00461520.2015.1075399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olneck, M. (2015). Whom will digital badges empower? Sociological perspectives on digital badges. In Hickey, D. T., Jovanovic, J., Lonn, S., & Willis, J.E. III (Eds.), Proceedings of the Second International Open Badges in Education Workshop (pp. 5–11), Workshop, Poughkeepsie, NY. Retrieved from http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-1358/paper1.pdfGoogle Scholar
Oyserman, D. (2015). Pathways to success through identity-based motivation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pink, D. H. (2011). Drive: The surprising truth about what motivates us. New York, NY: Penguin.Google Scholar
Ravet, S. (2014). #Openbadges for key competencies. Learning futures: Reflections on learning, technologies, identities, and trust [blog post]. Retrieved from http://www.learningfutures.eu/2014/12/openbadges-for-key-competencies/Google Scholar
Ravet, S. (2015). #OpenBadges: Beyond “Spray and pray”! Learning futures [blog post]. Retrieved from www.learningfutures.eu/2015/02/openbadges-beyond-spray-and-pray.Google Scholar
Resnick, M. (2012). Still a badge skeptic [blog post]. Retrieved from http://hastac.org/blogs/mres/2012/02/27/still-badge-skeptic.
Rieber, L. P. (1996). Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning environments based on the blending of microworlds, simulations, and games. Educational Technology Research and Development, 44(2), 43–58. doi: 10.1007/BF02300540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shavelson, R. J., Baxter, G. P., & Pine, J. (1992). Research news and comment: Performance assessments: Political rhetoric and measurement reality. Educational Researcher, 21(4), 22–7. doi: 10.3102/0013189X021004022.Google Scholar
Shepard, L. A. (2000). The role of assessment in a learning culture. Educational Researcher, 29(7), 4–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silva, E., White, T., & Toch, T. (2015). The Carnegie Unit: A century-old standard in a changing educational landscape. New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Retrieved from www.carnegiefoundation.org/resources/publications/carnegie-unit.Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Santa Monica, CA: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Steele, J. L., Lewis, M., Santibanez, L., Faxon-Mills, S., Rudnick, B., Stecher, B., & Hamilton, L. (2014). Competency-based education in three pilot programs: Examining implementation and outcomes. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. Retrieved from www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR732.html.Google Scholar
Thigpen, K. (2014). Digital badge systems: The promise and potential. Washington, DC: The Alliance for Excellent Education. Retrieved from http://all4ed.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/DigitalBadgeSystems.pdf.Google Scholar
Todorov, J. C. (2013). Conservation and transformation of cultural practices through contingencies and metacontingencies. Behavior and Social Issues, 22, 64–73. doi: 10.521/bsi.v.22i0.4612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torrance, H. (2012). Formative assessment at the crossroads: Conformative, deformative and transformative assessment. Oxford Review of Education, 38(3), 323–42. doi: 10.1080/03054985.2012.689693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tran, C., Schenke, K., & Hickey, D. T. (2014). Design principles for motivating learning with digital badges: Consideration of contextual factors of recognition and assessment. In Polman, J. L., Kyza, E. A., O'Neill, D. K., Tabak, I., Penuel, W. R., Jurow, A. S., ... D'Amico, L. (Eds.), Learning and becoming in practice: The International Conference of the Learning Sciences (ICLS) 2014, Volume 1 (pp. 1027–1032). Boulder, CO: The International Society of the Learning Sciences.Google Scholar
Xenos, M. & Foot, K. (2008). Not your father's Internet: The generation gap in online politics. In Bennett, W. L. (Ed.), Civic life online: Learning how digital media can engage youth, (pp. 51–70). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.Google Scholar
Young, J. R. (2012). “Badges” earned online pose challenge to traditional college diplomas. The Education Digest, 78(2), 48–52.Google Scholar
Yowell, C. M. (2014). Presentation at the Open Badges Summit to Reconnect Learning. Retrieved from http://vimeo.com/87127953.
Yowell, C. M. & Smylie, M. A. (1999). Self-regulation in democratic communities. The Elementary School Journal, 99(5), 469–90. doi: 10.1086/461936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
References
Amabile, T. M. & Gitomer, J. (1984). Children's artistic creativity: Effects of choice in task materials. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10, 209–15. doi: 10.1177/0146167284102006.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261–71. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.84.3.261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aoki, R., Matsumoto, M., Yomogida, Y., Izuma, K., Murayama, K., Sugiura, A., ... Matsumoto, K. (2014). Social equality in the number of choice options is represented in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 34, 6413–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Assor, A., Kaplan, H., & Roth, G. (2002). Choice is good, but relevance is excellent: Autonomy-enhancing and suppressing teacher behaviours predicting students’ engagement in schoolwork. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 261–78. doi: 10.1348/000709902158883.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175–1184. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.44.9.1175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bao, X. & Lam, S. (2008). Who makes the choice? Rethinking the role of autonomy and relatedness in Chinese children's motivation. Child Development, 79, 269–83. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01125.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, R. F. & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497–529. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beyers, W., Goossens, L., Vansant, I., & Moors, E. (2003). A structural model of autonomy in middle and late adolescence: Connectedness, separation, detachment, and agency. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 351–65. doi: 10.1023/A:1024922031510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjork, R. A., Dunlosky, J., & Kornell, N. (2013). Self-regulated learning: Beliefs, techniques, and illusions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 417–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown-Wright, L., Tyler, K. M., Graves, S. L., Thomas, D., Stevens-Watkins, D., & Mulder, S. (2013). Examining the associations among home–school dissonance, amotivation, and classroom disruptive behavior for urban high school students. Education and Urban Society, 45, 142–62. doi: 10.1177/0013124511408715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 354–80. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Beyers, W., Boone, L., Deci, E. L., Van der Kaap-Deeder, J., ... Verstuyf, J. (2015). Basic psychological need satisfaction, need frustration, and need strength across four cultures. Motivation and Emotion, 39, 216–36. doi: 10.1007/s11031-014-9450-1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cloutier, J. & Macrae, N. (2008). The feeling of choosing: Self-involvement and the cognitive status of things past. Consciousness and Cognition, 17, 125–35. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2007.05.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cordova, D. I. & Lepper, M. R. (1996). Intrinsic motivation and the process of learning: Beneficial effects of contextualization, personalization, and choice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 715–30. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.88.4.715.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, S. J., Brady-Van den Bos, M., & Turk, D. J. (2011). Exploring the effects of ownership and choice on self-memory biases. Memory, 19, 449–61. doi: 10.1080/09658211.2011.584388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dawes, R. M. (1976). Shallow psychology. In Carroll, J. S. & Payne, J. W. (Eds.), Cognition and social behavior (pp. xiii, 290). Oxford: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). The general causality orientations scale: Self-determination in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 19, 109–34. doi: 10.1016/0092-6566(85)90023-6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (2014). Autonomy and need satisfaction in close relationships: Relationships motivation theory. In Weinstein, N. (Ed.), Human motivation and interpersonal relationships (pp. 53–73). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlandss. doi: 10.1007/ 978-94-017-8542-6_3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eccles, J. S., Midgley, C., Wigfield, A., Buchanan, C. M., Reuman, D., Flanagan, C., & MacIver, D. (1993). Development during adolescence: The impact of stage-environment fit on young adolescents’ experiences in schools and in families. American Psychologist, 48, 90–101. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.48.2.90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flowerday, T. & Schraw, G. (2000). Teacher beliefs about instructional choice: A phenomenological study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 634–45. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.92.4.634.CrossRef